Parenting Styles and Anxiety Sensitivity Essay Example for Free

P argonnting Styles and Anxiety Sensitivity EssayStatement of the problemAt the determination of this study the researches aim to answer these questions 1. Is there a significant family relationship between pargonnting vogues and fretting esthesia? 2. Which among the three p atomic number 18nting style has the nobleest probability of producing anxious baby birdren? 3. Which among the demographic factors affect the kindleing style of the mothers?Review of Related writingsIt has long been proposed that p arent- electric shaver relationships (particularly a chelas perceptions of these relationships) play an important consumption in peasant fitting and psychological suppuration (Safford et al. , 2007).Since 1966, researchers have conducted a great deal of research evaluating parent barbarian interactions exploitation the prototype of enatic patterns developed by Baumrind (1966 1971), i.e., classical, authoritarian and permissive. Baumrind (1971) grouped parents beha vior correspond to whether they were high or low on agnate demandingness and reactivity. Each of these parenting styles reflected different naturally occurring patterns of parental values, practices and behaviors (Baumrind, 1991). crucial parents strive to provide clear, firm direction, provided discipline is moderated by warmth and reason (Buri, 1991). Permissive parents are non- applyling, and they engagement minimal punishment. Authoritarian parents are highly directive, and they value unquesti stard obedience.Authoritarian parents are characteristically less warm, they discourage verbal expire-and-take, and they use punitive methods to ascendence their childrens behavior (Gfroerer, et al., 2011). It is important then to uprise out the type of parenting in which the child is exposed to at such a young age be hasten it give have impact on their lives later on. During adolescence, various biological, cognitive, stimulated, and social changes take place that affect the parent-child relationship (Lerner et al., 1996). Hence, it is essential to further in some factors that have influenced parenting styles in this particular period of life (Dzgn, 1995). hazard parenting styles play a vital usage in the phylogeny of perplexity disorders, it then becomes key in on a lower floorstanding how everywhereprotective parenting aggravates the maturation of the fretting symptoms (Erozkan, 2012).Given the importance of perplexity sensibility for understanding emotional problems, it is important to as well as gain a better understanding of the spirit of fear sensitivity (Taylor, 1995). Because family is one of the largest environmental factors impacting a childs life, it is important to understand how a childs family affects the development of disquiet symptoms in children. Furthermore, since it is a childs parents who usually create the family environment, it is essential to understand which characteristics of parents or parenting founder to the d evelopment of anxiety (Nanda et al., 2011). Chorpita and Barlow (1998) hypothesized that early life experiences involving excessive parental manipulate can cause an soul to believe that events in ones life are un suppressl sufficient and unpredictable, which then contributes to the development of anxiety.That is, children who experience excessive parental control may believe that they have no internal control over their lives, since their parents are the ones who control everything this, in turn, can rent to the development of anxiety. Further, parents with high levels of anxiety sensitivity may intervene more often, as they observe signs of anxiety in their children, judging these symptoms as harmful (Erozkan, 2011). In accordance to this, the aim of this research is to uncover the significant relationships between anxiety sensitivity and parenting styles.In the study conducted by house et al. (2004), it is say that poor parenting style has been associated with anxiety and mo od disorders among children. In this study, parenting styles were carve up into ii holdings which are care and control. Under the dimension of care, parents are seen as warmth and understanding, while under the dimension of control, parents are seen as over-protective or intrusive. Patients with anxiety disorders were also tested in the study and Chambers et al. (2004) found out that those patients with anxiety disorders perceived poor parenting from both their mothers and fathers, while those who have no anxiety disorders report their parents as having optimal parenting. This suggests that optimal parenting may be considered as a factor in predictive recovery of the children.The study also concluded that paternal and maternal parenting styles have an effect on children. Poor parenting from mothers was associated with having a diagnosis in male participants, while poor parenting from fathers was associated with having a diagnosis in female participants. Parents who scored high i n care and high in control were seen as having convinced(p) parenting style than parents who scored low in care and either high or low in control. Based on the resolvings of the study, it is evident that parenting styles have an impact when it comes to childrens development of anxiety and or recovery from anxiety. Children who have parental care are more likely to perceive an optimal parenting and less likely to experience anxiety. Children who are already diagnosed with anxiety disorder are more likely to recover if their parents exhibit a positive parenting style.In a different study conducted by Lindhout et al. (2009), child temperament and child-rearing are give tongue to to be jeopardize factors in childs development of anxiety disorders. Parents of children having anxiety disorder exhibit a parenting style which is characterized by over-control and change magnitude criticism. Also, children whose parents translate less care or more control are said to be vulnerable to an xiety. The characteristic or temperament of the child may also give rise to the type of parenting style a parent uses and in return, may also strengthen the childs characteristics. Parenting styles may depend on the characteristic or temperament of the child and at the selfsame(prenominal) time, the characteristic or temperament of the child may also depend on the parenting style of their parents.This suggests that parenting serves as a moderator between temperament and anxiety (Lindhout et al., 2004). Also, children whose parents show less care or more control are said to be vulnerable to anxiety. Similar with the study of Chamber et al. (2004), Lindout et als. (2009) study also mentioned that parenting styles add an interesting component to the prevention of anxiety disorders among children. Temperament (shyness) appeared to be strongly related to anxiety levels in early childhood, but parenting style which is high in control showed more contribution to the anxiety that surface i n middle childhood or preadolescence, even among children who were non initially anxious (Lindhout et al., 2004). fit in to the study of Oort et al. (2011), anxiety has several risk factors such as family or peer influences, and factors that are proximal to the individual. This study also considered temperamental characteristics as associated with anxiety. Family factors include parenting styles with high rejection and overprotection, parenting stress, and parental anxiety and depression. In the government issue of the study, Oort et al. (2011) found out that some of the important risk factors in preadolescence were low self-competence, rejecting and overprotecting parenting, and being a bully-victim. These risk indicators decrease toward age 16-17 years old. The risk factors that remain stable in high levels of anxiety were temperament, parental lifetime internalizing problems, and being a victim of bullying. Based on these result, it can be said that parenting styles contribute to the anxiety level of the children and may not be disregarded. It is important to consider this factor as alter to anxiety of children so that anxiety may be prevented and parents leave be educated on this librate (Lindhout, 2009).In the study conducted by Niditch and Varela (2012), two dimensions of parenting styles were studied which are acceptance/rejection and autonomy-granting/control. Parental control is said to limit the childs exposure to developmentally appropriate autonomous experiences and self-guided problem solving (Niditch and Varela, 2012). It was also mentioned that controlling parents lead to anxiety by reducing the childs experience of mastery of challenges in his or her environment. According to the transactional and cyclical nature of the relationship between parental control and child anxiety as mentioned by Niditch and Varela (2012), the parent takes action for the child in order to relieve the childs distress, which often leads to the child feeling anxiou s in more situations. Parental rejection on the other hand, parents show criticism, arbitrary blame or punishment, and withholding warmth. Parental rejection teaches children that positive numbers are rare and are not the result of their actions, and this often leads to anxiety.It also said that parental rejection has less contribution when it comes to developing anxiety in children than parental control. It is important to consider the developmental stage in studying the effect of parental control on anxiety since parents controlling behaviors tend to change or increase done late childhood and decline towards adolescence (Niditch and Varela, 2012). It is also possible that changes in parenting styles affect anxious adolescents differently from non-anxious adolescents. This result manifests because anxious adolescents may perceive normative changes in control parenting style as increasing rejection. In adolescence, rejection is more associated with anxiety than control. Results of the study also revealed that maternal rejection was a predictor of anxiety.As explained by Niditch and Varela (2012), mothers are the nurturing caregivers and they pass on unique importance on maternal emotion socialization to their children, and that disruption to this role may result to reduced sense of emotional competence, which then leads to increased anxiety. Parents play an integral role in a childs development because it is them who first interacted with the children. According to Ryan and Lynch (1889) secure supplement to parents fosters a healthy self-confidence in adolescents as it does in other developmental stages.Because of this, it is essential to receive the possible effects of early parenting in the childs cognitive, social, and emotional aspects. It is widely assumed that the nature and quality of the interactions between parents and adolescents can contribute to young peoples well-being (Bandura, 1997). Diana Baumrind in 1966 was able to present three primary p arenting styles that can be used to categorize the parents behaviour towards the children. Later on in 1983, Macoby and Martin presented the fourth parenting style called the neglectful and Lamborns et al. (1991), were able to find supporting empirical results for this.As tell by Karavasilis, Doyle, and Markiewicz, (2003), authoritative parents are highly demanding, highly responsive and the same time grants autonomy. Authoritarian parents are characterized by high demandingness, low responsiveness and low levels of autonomy granting. Parents who arepermissive show high levels of responsiveness and autonomy but low level of demandingness. A neglectful parent shows low levels of demandingness, responsiveness and autonomy granting.One important area that has been emphasized as contributing to the development of childhood anxiety is parenting (Chorpita and Barlow, 1998). The parentchild relationship appears to be one contributor to the development and/or maintenance of child social an xiety. A relationship between social anxiety and a parenting style marked by overprotection (or high control) and low warmth has been repeatedly demonstrated in various age groups and deep down both clinical and developmental areas of psychological study. (Bruch et al. 1989). This suggests that the parenting style practiced by the parents is influential in the development of social anxiety in children. Spokas and Heimberg (2008) said that a family environment marked by affective amour and behavioral control (which is likely related to parental overprotection) predicted ones sense of control over anxiety symptoms, which then contributed to anxiety.Traditional models of childhood anxiety sought to explain the development of anxiety in terms of single main effects and focused primarily on the broad parenting dimensions of acceptance versus rejection and psychological granting of autonomy versus psychological control (Rapee, 1997). As stated by Clark and Ladd (2000), parental rejectio n connotes low levels of parental warmth, approval, and responsiveness. This in turn can weaken the childrens emotions that make him or her sensitive to anxiety that may lead to having anxiety problems. Parental control involves excessive parental regulation of childrens activities and routines, encouragement of childrens dependence on parents, and knowledge to children on how to think or feel (Barber, 1996).Theoretical models have hypothesized that when parents are highly controlling in contexts when it is developmentally appropriate for children to act separatistly (e.g., attending elementary school), children may experience decreased self-efficacy, and thus, increased anxiety (Wood, 2006). Adolescent years are often portrayed as the hardest stage as a teenager, because it is both tense for the parents and the teens. As said by Kopko (2007), teens undergo a number of developmental adjustments unneurotic with the changes on becoming an adult. These are related to the biological, cognitive, emotional and social changes as a teen. To be an impressive parent, it requires having methodical understanding of these developmental changes. Kopko (2007) stated that the parents parenting style gives a healthy outcome for the developmental changes.There are different kinds of parenting styles and different impact that can help parents with their parent-teen relationship and the teens to find smooth ways in the adolescent developmental changes. According to Kopko (2007), Baumrind (1971, 1991) has four patterns of parenting style that was based on the two aspects of parenting behavior which is the parental warmth and control. Parental warmth is how a parent accepts and responses to the child and parental control is how a parent manages the behavior of the child. There are different ways of combining the two aspects of parenting behavior and if so there are four parenting styles that come into view. But in this study the researchers will only have three of the parenting styles of Baumrind Authoritarian, Authoritative and Permissive.Kopko (2007) explained all the four patterns of parenting style, but the researcher will primarily focus on the other three parenting styles. Authoritative parenting style is a parent that shows warmth but secure towards the child. The parent reassures that the child can be able to do anything or be independent yet should also know ones limitations and control in their decision and actions. A child that has experienced an authoritative parenting style may likely to be socially capable, trustworthy and independent. Authoritarian parenting style is a parent that shows a little bit of warmth and more on the control towards the child. The parents are strict and controlling, they use a disciplinary style towards their child and they insist that their directions to the child will be followed. A child that has experienced an authoritarian parenting style may likely to be rebellious or dependent. A child that turns out to be r ebellious has the tendency to show aggressive behaviors and a child that is more supine or submissive is dependent towards the parent.Permissive parenting style is a parent that shows warmth and no control toward the child. The parent is easygoing, understanding and passive and believes that by reciprocation to the wants of the child will show their love. A child that has experienced a permissive parenting style may likely to be self-centered and have no self-control. As stated by Biradar (2006), the youth is a period of time where the maturity in personal and psychological attributes change. The youth is likely to build his or her own identity and to acquire skills for socially responsible behavior. The youths change to adulthood can have a smooth process enabled by the presence and guide of securing, nurturing, and understanding parent. If there will be an emotional connection or bonding and communication between the parent and the child it is enough reason that the youth can b e emotionally and socially capable, responsible and independent.Taylor (2007) discussed that anxiety sensitivity is the fear of arousal-related sensations, and saying that these sensations have harmful consequences. There are three basic dimensions of anxiety sensitivity the first dimension is the fear of publicly observable anxiety reactions, the second dimension is the fear of thinking that it is unable to control ones behavior, and the last dimension is the fear of somatic sensations. Anxiety sensitivity contributes to the intensity of ones emotional reactions.According to stein (1999), anxiety sensitivity is the fear of anxiety-related sensations. In the expectancy theory, an individual may become anxious whenever a symptom is experienced by an individual may tend to avoid certain activities, events, and places that will take off anxiety. Stein (1999) also explained that if an individual has a high level of anxiety sensitivity, it is said to be that the individual is more like ly to be a threat or danger if the individual experiences anxiety symptoms. Kashdan et. al. (2008) said that anxiety sensitivity can be a variable risk factor for anxiety problems and anxiety sensitivity is uniquely have a connection to escape and avoidance behavior of an individual.

Phytochemical Screening and Extraction Essay Example for Free

Phytochemical coating and Extraction EssayPlants ar a artificial lake of large amount of drugs comprising to different groups such as antispasmodics, emetics, anti-cancer, antimicrobials etc. A large number of the constitutes atomic number 18 claimed to possess the antibiotic properties in the tralatitiousistic trunk and are also used extensively by the tribal people worldwide. It is now believed that nature has granted the cure of every disease in one way or another. Plants redeem been known to remediate various diseases in Ayurveda.Therefore, the researchers today are emphasizing on evaluation Prashant Tiwari*, Bimlesh Kumar, Mandeep Kaur, Gurpreet Kaur, Harleen Kaur Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, agreeable School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Phagwara, Punjab and characterization of various lay downs and specify constituents against a number of diseases based on their tralatitious claims of the plants given in Ayurveda. Extraction of the bioactive plant c onstituents has always been a challenging task for the researchers. In this return review, an attempt has been made to give an overview of certain extractants and extraction processes with their advantages and disadvantages.INTRODUCTIONextracts. Such preparations have been popularly called Plant-derived substances have recently become of galenicals, named after Galen, the second century great interest owing to their versatile applications. classical physician 2. Medicinal plants are the richest bio-resource of drugs Extraction methods used pharmaceutically involves of the separation of medicinally active portions of plant traditional systems of modern folk tissues from the inactive/inert components by using medicines, pharmaceutical intermediates and chemical selective solvents. During extraction, solvents turn out entities for synthetic drugs 1.Into the solid plant material and solubilize compounds Extraction (as the term is pharmaceutically used) is the with similar polarity 1. separation of medicinally active portions of plant (and The purpose of standardized extraction procedures for animal) tissues using selective solvents through crude drugs (medicinal plant parts) is to attain the standard procedures. The products so obtained from therapeutically desired portions and to eliminate plants are relatively complex mixtures of metabolites, unwanted material by treatment with a selective in liquid or semisolid pass on or (after removing the solvent known as menstrum.The extract thus solvent) in dry powder engineer, and are intended for oral obtained, after standardization, may be used as or external use. These hold classes of preparations medicinal agent as such in the form of tinctures or known extracts, fluid extracts or further processed to be incorporated tinctures, pilular (semisolid) extracts or powdered in any dosage form such as tablets and capsules.These as decoctions, food medicine, supplements, infusions, fluid products contains complex mixtu re of many medicinal plant metabolites, such as alkaloids, glycosides, terpenoids, flavonoids and lignans 3. The general techniques of medicinal plant extraction include maceration, infusion, percolation, digestion, Internationale Pharmaceutica Sciencia Jan-Mar 2011 Vol 1 Issue 1Prashant Tiwari, et al Phytochemical screening and Extraction A Review decoction, (Soxhlet), part of the plant like bark, leaves, flowers, roots, fruits, aqueous-alcoholic extraction by fermentation, counter- seeds, etc i.e. any part of the plant may contain active current extraction, microwave-assisted extraction, components. The systematic screening of plant species ultrasound extraction (sonication), supercritical fluid with the purpose of discovering new bioactiveextraction, (with compounds is a routine activity in many laboratories. hydrofluorocarbon solvents). For aromatic plants, Scientific analysis of plant components follows a hydrodistillation techniques (water distillation, steam system of logica l pathway. Plants are collected either randomly distillation, water and steam distillation), hydrolytic or by following leads supplied by local anaesthetic healers in maceration followed by distillation, expression and geographical areas where the plants are found 5. enfl eurage (cold fat extraction) may be employed. Fresh or dried plant materials can be used as a source Some of the latest extraction methods for aromatic for the extraction of secondary plant components. plants include headspace trapping, solid bod micro- Many authors had reported about plant extract extraction, protoplast extraction, microdistillation, preparation from the fresh plant tissues.The logic thermomicrodistillation and molecular distillation 3. behind this came from the ethno medicinal use of fresh The basic parameters influencing the quality of an plant materials among the traditional and tribal extract are 1 people.

Time Management Is Very Important for Academic Achivement Essay Example for Free

Time attention Is Very Important for Academic Achivement EssayA barbarian is a human between the st jump ons of birthing and puberty. 1 Some biological renderings of a boor include the fetus, as being an unborn child. The legal definition of child generally refers to a minor, otherwise known as a person younger than the age of majority. A Child may also describe a relationship with a p atomic number 18nt (such as sons and daughters of any age) or, metaphorically, an authority figure, or signify group membership in a clan, tribe, or devotion it can also signify being strongly affected by a specific time, place, or circumstance, as in a child of nature or a child of the Sixties. Abuse is the unseasonable usage or treatment for a bad purpose, a great deal to unfairly or improperly crystalise benefit. Abuse can come in many forms, such as physical or communicatory maltreatment, injury, sexual assault, violation, rape, unjust practices wrongful practice or custom offense cr ime, or otherwise communicatory aggressionThe bottom line regarding child abuse is that its croakrence crosses all gender, race, societal and economic lines. The judgeship of Children and Families estimate 3,503,000 children received an investigation by CPS agencies in 2004 as follows 62. percent of victims experienced neglect, 17. 5 percent were physically abused, 9. 7 percent were sexually abused, 7. 0 percent were psychologically maltreated, and 2. 1 percent were medically neglected. Who is at highest risk of becoming a child abuse victim? What factors should be considered when assessing child abuse risk factors? Adults who experienced abuse as children. When assessing child abuse risk factors, statics show that rough adults who were abused as children repeat that same behavior with their own children.Victims of child abuse are often unable to develop healthy ways of disciplining their children, so repeat the behaviors they learned themselves as children. Adults involved in an abusive relationship with an intimate partner. Another dynamic to consider when assessing child abuse risk factors is a elevate/ bidgiver who is involved in an abusive relationship themselves. The child abuse may occur either out of frustration and shame over the abuse the adult experiences, or be vitrine of a lessen ability to function in a healthy and appropriate relationship with their children.Child with disabilities or moral retardation. A child with extraordinary needs may increase the core group of care on the caregiver, dominancely leading to higher stress levels. Further, a parents or caregivers lack of understanding the childs needs and development may lead to abuse by the parent or caregiver who perceives the childs behavior inappropriately or inaccurately. Family disorganization, dissolution. When assessing child abuse risk factors, children in families on the brink of dissolving, or have already dissolved are at a high risk for abuse due to increased stress lev el in the relationships.Sometimes one parent abuses the child as an unconscious way to hurt the other parent or one of the parents blame the child for contributing to the dissolution or disorganization of the family. Poverty, unemployment, stress, distress. Poverty is not a cause of child abuse. When assessing child abuse risk factors, though, poverty, unemployment and other socioeconomic disadvantages of the family place a child at high risk for becoming a victim of child abuse.The stress, sense of hopelessness, potential loss of possessions and livelihood can increase stress to a boiling point, with adults lashing out at those who are most vulnerable. Depression and other mental health conditions. Mental illness can cause adults to respond and react in violent or at least unhealthy ways. Relationships with children and others in the invigoration of a depressed or mentally ill individual can be strained and misunderstood, sometimes leading to abuse.. Negative interactions and/or p oor child-parent relationships.This type of dynamic creates a vicious cycle of coarse anger and frustration. When a parent and child have a difficult or challenging relationship, the parent may lash out in anger and frustration by abusing the child. Medical practitioners, teachers, child care providers and others in a position of responsibility for children are required by law to report suspect child abuse. Reporters may remain anonymous to the suspected abuser and investigators will thoroughly investigate the allegation. The burden of responsibility for proving abuse is on the investigator, not the reporter.

The Minimum Wage Debate Essay Example for Free

The marginal prosecute Debate Essay negligible betroth laws watch legal nominals for the periodical affiance paid to certain groups of takeers (Gorman). marginal earnings laws were invented in Australia and New Zea put down with the purpose of guaranteeing a stripped standard of living for un experient workers. In the join States, workers are everydayly entitled to be paid no less than the statutory nominal betroth. In the United States, amendments to the Fair Labor Standards Act become extendd the federal official tokenish hire from $.25 in 1938 to $7.25 in 2013. Some conjure ups and municipalities have set marginal plight levels high than the federal level, with the highest state tokenish betroth being . 19 per hour in Washington State as of 2013 (Wikipedia).President Barack Obamas strain for increasing the minimum net profit during his State of the Union address has renewed parameter among policy experts, politicians and economists, who implo re that if enacted the proposal could either drive up un c one timern or create much stability for Americas poor. President Obama wants to increase the minimum pursue from its cur ask $7.25 to $9.00 an hour, which he said would reduce the number of muckle in America who work full fourth dimension further who lie with in beggary. President Obama states this bingle step would raise the in incurs of millions of working families it could mean the difference between groceries or the food bank rent or eviction scraping by or finally getting ahead. For businesses crossways the country, it would mean customers with much money in their pockets (White, 2013).This paper ordain examine President Obamas proposal to increase the minimum absorb by evaluating the history of the minimum wage, the concourse affected by the minimum wage, the frugal musical mode of thinking, and the writers perspective of the flip over. In conclusion, this paper pass on provide an alternative to Presi dent Obamas call for an increase in the minimum wage.-The Minimum betrothThe minimum wage has a self-colored social appeal, rooted in concern about the ability of markets to provide income equity for the least adequate members of the work force. The obvious solution to this concern is to redefine the wage structure politically to achieve a socially preferable distribution of income. Thus, minimum wage laws have usually been judged against the criterion reducing p all overty (Wikipedia).Minimum wage laws were also proposed as way to control the increase the spread of sweat shops in manufacturing industries. Sweat shops employed large number of women and young workers, paying them substandard wages. The sweatshop owners were thought to have partial bargaining power over their workers, and a minimum wage was proposed as a performer to corporealise them pay their workers fairly. Eventually, the focus changed to helping people, become more self-sufficient. Today, minimum wage laws affect workers in closely low-paid fields of employment (Wikipedia, 2013).There is great disagreement as to whether the minimum wage is effective in attaining its goals. From the time of their introduction, minimum wage laws have been controversial politically, and have received much less donjon from economists than from the general public. Despite decades of experience and economic research, debates about the costs and benefits of minimum wages continue today.- writings ReviewResearching the minimum wage resulted in an abundance of scholarly reviews as well as positive news articles which provided the pros and cons of the minimum wage increase proposed by President Obama in his State of Union Address. David Neumark and William Wascher evaluates the personal effects of the Minimum Wage and Employment states at that place is a wide range of existing estimates and, accordingly, a leave out of consensus about the overall effects on low-wage employment of an increase in the minimu m wage. However, the oft-stated assertion that fresh research fails to support the traditional review that the minimum wage reduces the employment of low-wage employment of low-wage employment is inferably in represent. They characterize economist in the debate as those economists who claimed the low-wage labor market at the time as marginalists and those who claimed that it was not as institutionalists (Wascher, 2006).Their findings resulted in studies that provide present of positive employment effects of minimum wage, in particular from those studies that focus on the broader groups (rather than a narrow industry) for which the competitive model predicts disemployment effects. They also found that studies that focus on the least-skilled groups provide relatively overwhelming evidence of stronger disemployment effects for these groups.Also, John Schmitt reviews evidence on el make up come-at-able adjustments to minimum-wage increases that may help to explain why the measured employment effects are so systematically small. He states that the most important channels of adjustment are reductions in labor turnover improvements in organizational efficiency reductions in wages of higher earners and small price increases. His report found that critical or no employment response to modest increase in the minimum wage and evidence on a range of possible adjustments to minimum-wage increases that may help to explain why the measured employment effects are so consistently small (Schmitt, 2013).As mentioned, online articles from Newsweek, Wikipedia, and Deseret News provided background information as well as opinions that determined the direction in which the writers would approach in this paper.-The people affected by the Minimum WageMinimum wage workers tend to be young. Although workers under age 25 represented only about one-fifth of periodic paid workers, they made up half of those paid the federal minimum wage or less. Among employed teenagers paid by th e hour, about 21 percent clear the minimum wage or less, compared with about 3 percent of workers age 25 and over (See prorogue I). About 6 percent of women paid hourly rates had wages at or to a turn down place the prevailing federal minimum, compared with about 3 percent of men. (Of minimum wage earners overall, 67 percent are women, and 33 percent are men).The percentage of workers earning the minimum wage did not vary much across the major race and ethnicity groups. About 5 percent of white, black, and Hispanic hourly-paid workers earned the federal minimum wage or less. Among Asian hourly paid workers, about3 percent earned the minimum wage or less. Among hourly paid workers age 16 and over, about 10 percent of those who had less than a high work diploma earned the federal minimum wage or less, compared with about 4 percent of those who had a high school diploma (with no college) and about 2 percent of college graduates. Part-time workers (persons who usually work less tha n 35 hours per week) were more likely than their full-time counterparts to be paid the federal minimum wage or less (about 11 percent versus about 2 percent). About 7 in 10 workers earning the minimum wage or less in 2012 were employed in service occupations, mostly in food preparation and serving related jobs. Among the states, Mississippi, South Carolina, Tennessee and Oklahoma had the highest proportions of hourly-paid workers earning at or below the federal minimum wage (about 6 percent). The percentage of workers earning at or below the Federal minimum wage was lowest (1 percent or less) in Alaska, California and Oregon (Rampell, 2009).Table 1. Employed wage and net profit workers paid hourly rates with earnings at or below the prevailing federal minimum wage by selected characteristics, 2012 annual averages Characteristic Number of workers(in thousands) Percent distribution Percent of workers paid hourly rates Total paid hourly rates At or below minimum wage Total paid hourl y rates At or below minimum wage At or below minimum wage Total At minimum wage Below minimum wage Total At minimum wage Below minimum wage Total At minimum wage Below minimum wage AGE AND SEX Total, 16 historic period and over 75,276 3,550 1,566 1,984 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 4.7 2.1 2.6 16 to 24 long time 14,909 1,797 862 935 19.8 50.6 55.0 47.1 12.1 5.8 6.3 16 to 19 years 4,044 854 484 370 5.4 24.1 30.9 18.6 21.1 12.0 9.1 25 years and over 60,367 1,753 704 1,049 80.2 49.4 45.0 52.9 2.9 1.2 1.7 manpower, 16 years and over 37,113 1,263 567 696 49.3 35.6 36.2 35.1 3.4 1.5 1.9 16 to 24 years 7,454 673 333 340 9.9 19.0 21.3 17.1 9.0 4.5 4.6 16 to 19 years 1,922 366 207 159 2.6 10.3 13.2 8.0 19.0 10.8 8.3 25 years and over 29,659 591 235 356 39.4 16.6 15.0 17.9 2.0 0.8 1.2 Women, 16 years and over 38,163 2,287 999 1,288 50.7 64.4 63.8 64.9 6.0 2.6 3.4 16 to 24 years 7,455 1,124 529 595 9.9 31.7 33.8 30.0 15.1 7.1 8.0 16 to 19 years 2,122 489 278 211 2.8 13.8 17.8 10.6 23. 0 13.1 9.9 25 years and over 30,708 1,163 470 693 40.8 32.8 30.0 34.9 3.8 1.5 2.3 RACE AND HISPANIC OR LATINO ETHNICITY White (1) 59,180 2,760 1,185 1,575 78.6 77.7 75.7 79.4 4.7 2.0 2.7 men 29,691 984 444 540 39.4 27.7 28.4 27.2 3.3 1.5 1.8 Women 29,490 1,776 741 1,035 39.2 50.0 47.3 52.2 6.0 2.5 3.5 scandalous or African American (1) 10,049 533 277 256 13.3 15.0 17.7 12.9 5.3 2.8 2.5 Men 4,522 183 85 98 6.0 5.2 5.4 4.9 4.0 1.9 2.2 Women 5,527 350 193 157 7.3 9.9 12.3 7.9 6.3 3.5 2.8 Asian (1) 3,403 117 48 69 4.5 3.3 3.1 3.5 3.4 1.4 2.0 Men 1,568 39 16 23 2.1 1.1 1.0 1.2 2.5 1.0 1.5 Women 1,835 78 32 46 2.4 2.2 2.0 2.3 4.3 1.7 2.5 Hispanic or Latino (1) 14,404 718 337 381 19.1 20.2 21.5 19.2 5.0 2.3 2.6 Men 8,114295 127 168 10.8 8.3 8.1 8.5 3.6 1.6 2.1 Women 6,290 423 210 213 8.4 11.9 13.4 10.7 6.7 3.3 3.4 FULL- AND PART-TIME STATUS Full-time workers (2) 54,745 1,261 501 760 72.7 35.5 32.0 38.3 2.3 0.9 1.4 Men 30,052 491 197 294 39.9 13.8 12.6 14.8 1.6 0.7 1 .0 Women 24,693 770 304 466 32.8 21.7 19.4 23.5 3.1 1.2 1.9 Part-time workers (2) 20,411 2,286 1,063 1,223 27.1 64.4 67.9 61.6 11.2 5.2 6.0 Men 6,998 772 370 402 9.3 21.7 23.6 20.3 11.0 5.3 5.7 Women 13,413 1,513 693 820 17.8 42.6 44.3 41.3 11.3 5.2 6.1 Footnotes(1) Estimates for the above race groups (White, Black or African American, and Asian) do not sum to totals because data are not presented for all races. Persons whose ethnicity is identified as Hispanic or Latino may be of any race. (2) The distinction between full- and part-time workers is found on hours usually worked. These data give not sum to totals because full- or part-time status on the principal job is not identifiable for a small number of multiple jobholders. Full time is 35 hours or more per week part time is less than 35 hours. NOTE data exclude all self-employed persons whether or not their businesses are incorporated (U. S. D. o. Labor, 2013).- economic ThinkingWhen considering the debate about President Ob amas proposal to increase the minimum wage, it can be framed nigh select guideposts of economic thinking. The first guidepost that can be applied to the minimum wage debate is beware of the auxiliary effects economic actions often generate indirect as well as direct effects (Gwartney, 2013). The direct, immediate effect of increasing the minimum wage is an intended one, but secondary effects, or unintended consequences also present themselves. The law of demand states that the quantity demanded will decrease as the price of the good increases, with all other variables holding steady at constant. In this case, according to the law of demand, an increase in the price oflabor, the minimum wage, will cause a decrease in the add of available positions in the job market. The higher minimum wage will draw more workers into the market, but simultaneously, the higher price of labor will cause employers to offer less employment opportunities for lower skilled workers. Opponents of this vie wpoint argue that an increase in the minimum wage will have a more positive secondary effect $18 billion injected into the economy, along with 100,000 new jobs by 2015, supporting economic growth (White, 2013).President Obamas proposal to increase the minimum wage appeals to a moral experience people prefer to see fairness in the job market when it comes to wages. The conservative side of the account echoes the law of demand. The true test of an economic theory is its ability to accurately predict, another guidepost of economic thinking. The law of demand is a strong one, but considering the changes in other economic variables, it cannot be considered absolute. In New Jersey, the number of fast food jobs actually increased after an 18 percent increase in the minimum wage was instituted (White, 2013). -2 Sides of the Debate (the writers perspective)Increases in the minimum wage have consistently fallen behind inflation, so that in real terms the minimum wage is substantially lower than it was in the 1960s. Meanwhile, worker productivity has doubled. If the current minimum wage seems low, raising it would cost jobs. But theres evidence on that question. And while there are dissenters, the great preponderance of the evidence points to scant(p) if any negative effect of minimum wage increases on employment (Krugman, 2013). It is also important to understand how the minimum wage interacts with other policies aimed at helping lower-paid workers, in particular the earned-income tax credit. The tax credit is also good policy. But it has a well-known defect, some of its benefits end up flowing not to workers but to employers, in the form of lower wages. And guess what? An increase in the minimum wage helps correct this defect. It turns out that the tax credit and the minimum wage arent competing policies they are complementary policies that work outgo in tandem(Krugman, 2013). President Obamas wage proposal is good economics. It is also good authorities a wage inc rease is supported by an overwhelming majority of voters. Yet G.O.P. leaders in Congress are opposed to any rise. Why? They say that theyre concerned about the people who might lose their jobs, never mind the evidence that this wont actually happen. We will analyze that an increase in wages will restore strength to the economy. We will see room that even more increases in wages will improve the economy. Social costs of labor will be better covered and the economy will work better. The US economy is a mature economy, and that means that labor needs to be paid more of the % of national income as real GDP increases.The real job creators are the bottom 90 percent, including those right at the bottom who would benefit from a minimum wageconsumers, those who spend nearly all of their income on real goods and services and hoard very little of it. And fairness be told, without spending there are no sales without sales there are no profits without profits there is no demand for workers wit hout demand for workers there is no job insane asylum and without job creation there is no recovery. Overall raising the minimum would help some family live a little better and not stress as much with paying for food and utilities. It will help build a sense of pride and self-esteem after all is this not the land of opportunity (Krugman, 2013). The minimum wage makes it harder for unskilled workers to gain the labor market experience and on-the-job learning that would raise their productivity and future pay. Unskilled workers are less attractive with a higher minimum wage because they produce less per hour and their hiring diverts more senior workers from revenue producing activities to training and supervision (Shemkus 2011). Firms will only invest in human capital if they expect to receive a return on their investing. Firms will not pay for general skills if workers are likely to leave before firms recoup their investment costs. The Bureau of Labor Statistics states that 69% of jobs started by workers age 18 to 24 last less than a year. Turnover is even higher for teen age workers. Young workers must therefore pay for the general (often informal) training they receive by accepting a lower wage (Shemkus, 2011). The good news is that once these workers have some experience and training they can command a higher wage. A higher minimum wage encourages firms to hire already trained and experienced workers, eliminates some opportunities forexperience and training, and puts an even bigger load on our vocational schools to train unskilled workers. The effects on employment rates would be exactly the opposite of those supporters foresee. A higher minimum wage, they claim, would be too heavy a burden on employers, especially small business owners. And those employers, in turn, would be unable to hire as galore(postnominal) people an undesirable result when unemployment continues to hover at about 8 percent (Shemkus, 2011). When legislators raise the price of low and unskilled labor, it is usually low- and unskilled laborers who end up paying the price, increasing the minimum wage has not proven to be effective at lowering the poverty rate. Multiple studies have exhibit little to no relationship between a higher minimum wage and reductions in poverty. So it looks like the minimum wage will probably be staying right where it is for some time to come (Shemkus, 2011). -ConclusionIn conclusion, the writers personally support the Presidents call to increase the minimum wage to $9 per hour. However, the writers must realistically look at both sides of the debate and recommend an alternative that will ease the minds of US citizens, politicians, and economists (on both sides of the debate). We recommend continuing to allow individual cities and states to mandate the minimum wage deemed necessary for the citizens of their jurisdiction. The Department of Labor states that there are 4 states that have a minimum wage set lower than the federal minimum wage and 19 states (plus DC) with minimum wage rates set higher than the federal minimum wage. There are 22 of the states that have a minimum wage requirement that is the same as the federal minimum wage requirement. The remaining states do not have an established minimum wage requirement (D. O. Labor, 2013). With this said, the Federal minimum wage law will ceaselessly supersede state minimum wages where the federal law minimum wage is greater than the state minimum wage. In those states where the state minimum wage is greater than the federal minimum wage, the state minimum wage prevails (D. O. Labor, 2013). This recommendation would protect the minimum wage employees in less than statutory minimum wage states, while granting thefederal government a reprieve until the economy get back on its feet. on the same line, the writers also recommend allowing states to regulate their citizens minimum wage, the minimum wage would be connect to a consumer price index. This linkage would increase the minimum wage each year. Currently, there are 10 states (AZ, CO, FL, MO, MT, NV, OH, OR, VT, and WA) which already have this recommendation in place (D. O. Labor, 2013). The economy in these states has not been affected by the increase each year. Employees earn enough to live on in their prospective state and the employers bottom line is not affected because their charges for products or services are also increased imputable to inflation.-ReferencesGorman, Linda.). Minimum Wages. Retrieved April 4, 2013, 2013, from http//www.econlib.org/cgi-bin/printcee.pl Labor, Department Of. (2013). United States Department Of Labor, Wage and Hour Division. Retrieved April 30, 2013, from http//www.dol.gov/whd/minwage/america.htm Labor, United States Department of. (2013). Characteristics Of Minimum Wage Workers 2012. Retrieved April 12, 2013, from http//www.bls.gov/cps/minwage2012.htm Rampell, Catherine. (2009). Who is affected by a higher minimum wage? Retrieved April 17, 2014, from http//economix.blogs.nytimes.com/2009/07/24/who-is-affected-by-todays-minimum-wage-hike/ Schmitt, John. (2013). Why Does the Mininmum Wage Have No Discernible Effect on Employment? (pp. 2-24) Center for Economic and Policy Research. Wascher, David Neumark and William. (2006). Minimum Wages And Employment A Review Of Eveidence From the New Minimum Wage Research. National Bureau of Economic Research, NBER Working Paper No. 12663, 2-432. White, Mercedes. (2013). The great minimum wage debate how Obamas proposal to increase the minimum wage will impact the economy. Retrieved March 27, 2013, from http//www.deseretnews.com/article/865573603/The-great-minimum-wage-debate-how Wikipedia.). Minimum wage in the United States. Retrieved April 15, 2013, from http//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minimum_wage_in_the_United_States Wikipedia. (2013). Minimum Wage. Retrieved April 14, 2013, 2013, from

Analysis of Macroscopic Traffic Flow Parameters

Analysis of Macroscopic vocation Flow Parameters analysis OF MACROSCOPIC TRAFFIC FLOW PARAMETERS OF HETEROGENEOUS TRAFFIC A CASE STUDY OF SELECTED STRETCH OF DAKOR countermand Keywords Traffic flow, macroscopic parameter, capacity, level of service.Transportation refers as a movement of persons, animals and goods from one transmit (origin) to some other place (destination). Now a days, transportation is going to be a part of our life to bring home the bacon our necessity. Increase in transportation is because of append in population introductoryally. The population of India is growing rapidly with a national average growth rate of 2.7 percent per annum (Census of India, 2010). The growing cities have generated the high levels of demand for displace by motor vehicles in the cities. This has resulted in tremendous increase in the population of automobiles in the cities. The Indian population increased with a decadal growth of 17.64% (census 2011) and annual growth rate of 1.2% (World Bank report). Next to this, the innovation in the automobile industry, liberalized economy and change in peoples life has led to tremendous increase in the vehicle ownership levels. This has resulted in changing in nature of concern characteristics on road mesh topology and ultimately it affects the capacity of roadway, level of service on stream and congestion on roadway. Hence contract in revive, unwanted commerce delays, road accidents, avocation jam, increase in travel while and so forth are resulted. Therefore, the analysis of concern stream parameter is needed to workplace for the effective planning, design, operation and charge of roadway scheme.Homogeneous job has strict lane discipline and has traffic entity types whose physical dimensions do non vary much. In the nonhomogeneous traffic they loose lane discipline prevails. The physical dimensions of the traffic entities vary greatly. Operationally, quickening and deceleration characteristics vary great ly because nonmotorized traffic entities exist along with motorized vehicles on the road. The most of the studies in such traffic make use of the methods and concepts developed for homogeneous traffic.In India, it seems that the traffic is greatly protest due to vehicular and road user characteristics. The interaction between different size vehicles and their drivers as nearly as the infrastructure gives rise to many complex phenomena on our roads. To lowstand traffic flow, carnal knowledgeships have been found between the 2 main characteristics flow and velocity. Flow, speed, and density are the critical parameters used to describe characteristics of traffic flow. A traffic flow fundamental diagram is used to characterize the relation between these ternary parameters, and plays an important role in traffic flow theory and traffic engineering. In capacity analysis, speed-flow relation models are used to determine the level of service. The time gap between successive vehicle a rrivals, namely, time headway between vehicles is an important traffic flow characteristic that affects the safety, level of service and road capacity. accord time headways and their distributions will enable better management of traffic.The aim of study is to analyse the macroscopic traffic flow parameters of heterogeneous traffic on selected stretch of Dakor. The objectives of study are as following,To estimate the basic traffic flow parameters for different traffic stream under study.To develop analytical relationship among traffic flow parameters.To determine the congestion, capacity and level of service of selected road stretch under study.To suggest the worthy solution for the observed problem of congestion.Dakor is a pilgrim area and it is observed that a large amount of tripper attraction takes place. The surrounding area comprise of large numbers of quarries, as a result of this major traffic observed at the site are multi axle trucks, resulting into considerable congest ion. Hence it is necessary to understand the traffic behavior at the chosen site. Dakor, in its earlier phases as pilgrimage center in Gujarat, was famed for the Danknath temple, a place of Shiva worship. Recently, Dakor is included in one of the six major pilgrimage places under Yatradham Vikas Board by Government of Gujarat for development as a well-planned and well organized pilgrimage place to facilitate the lacs and lacs of visiting pilgrims. More than 70-80 lacs of pilgrims visit the place every year and a continuous increase is witnessed every year. Dakor is located at 22.75N 73.15E. By visual observation and pilot survey, it is examine that the traffic density increases to jam density.METHODOLOGYDATA COLLECTIONThe study consist of conducting various surveys on selected stretches of Dakor. entropy collection is carried come to the fore carefully as it is the raw info for final analysis. There are two types of data collected in data collection namely primary winding Data and Secondary Data. Primary data is collected from spot speed survey, classified volume count survey and road geometry data by self-measurement of road stretch. Whenever secondary data is collected from the maps given by Road Building division of Kheda District.Primary data collectionRoad inventory, traffic volume count and spot speed study is carried out manually.Classified volume countNumber of vehicles passing through a point or entering a stretch is considered in the analysis of roadway operations. Traffic volume can be counted by manual or video graphic techniques. Here manual traffic survey is carried out for 0900 am to 700 pm with 15 minute time interval and volume of traffic is mensurable using tally counter on mid-block section of Dakor to Umreth road.Analysis of traffic volume data has been through with(p) and following results shows the composition if traffic on road and variation of traffic on road.Figure Traffic volume analysis for Dakor to UmrethFigure Traffic volum e analysis for Umreth to DakorSpot speed study revivify is one of the most important characteristic of traffic as measure of effectiveness of traffic system performance. Speed is highly sensitive to the interaction among vehicles in the stream. The spot speed study is carried out on Dakor to Umreth road. The average speed, time mean speed, space mean speed, standard deviation is calculated from spot speed data.Spot speed study data analysis on Umreth to Dakor roadstandard deviation aloofness mean speed(km/hr)time mean speed(km/hr) average speed(km/hr)minimum speed(km/hr) maximum speed(km/hr)2-w8.0737.1138.7538.5725.7156.843-w8.1233.4835.1631.7622.04544-w11.3137.4740.4637.9126.3463.53Bus7.3335.6737.0736.6226.3451.43Truck3.2932.6533.0132.7327.6940.00Multi Axle Truck4.7935.9836.6136.0027.6946.96LCV4.3034.5935.0934.2927.6951.43Spot speed study data on Dakor to Umreth roadstandard deviationSpace mean speed(km/hr)time mean speed(km/hr)median speed(km/hr)minimum speed(km/hr)maximum speed(k m/hr)2-w4.6538.2337.7037.9630.86603-w5.8333.8634.8533.752446.964-w7.2941.4742.9741.5423.4860Bus5.7334.5735.4934.2923.4854Truck5.1435.3436.0534.8427.6949.05Multi Axle Truck3.6836.9737.3237.313046.96LCV3.1037.8038.0537.9630.8645.00

Explaining Electoral Volatility In Latin America Politics Essay

Explaining electoral Volatility In Latin the States Politics EssayAbstractMany existing explanations of electoral excitability in Latin America squander been try outed at the orbit train, provided they ar for the most part untested at the private ships company train. In this paper, I apply a class-conscious linear work (HLM) to test confexercisingd explanations of electoral capriciousness on data of 128 parties in the turn away house elections of 18 Latin American countries from 1978 to 2011. My most important finding pertains to the conditional stamp of a troupes land tenure status on electoral unpredictability. First, the results show that the effect of society age on lessen electoral excitability is stronger for superjacent parties. Second, an superjacent companionship has a set down aim of electoral irritability than encounter parties during periods of stronger stinting military operation. Last, charm an illegal alteration of policy-making instit utions is hypothesized to increase the level of volatility for each the parties in a country, the effect is much than than significant for the incumbent company.Explaining Electoral Volatility in Latin AmericaEvidence at the troupe LevelIntroductionConcerns with company system institutionalization and its consequences in growing countries live with grown in the past decade. Extant literature chthonianscores that political parties play an important social function in linking diverse social forces with popular institutions, channeling societal demands, managing sociopolitical conflicts, holding g everyplacenment officials accountable to the electorate, and legitimizing the regime (Dix 1992 Sartori 1968 Schattschneider 1942). In this sense, political parties with horse barn and consistent corroborate across elections not only ensure their long- end point survival, b arely also help institutionalize the companionship system. A persistent and institutionalized ships compan y system fosters more effective programmatic representation (Mainwaring and Zoco 2007, 157) and facilitates the institutionalization of political un authorized(p)ty (Przeworski and Sprague 1986). In contrast, a democratic country with a ailing institutionalized party system where electoral volatility is very gamy carrys to produce populist leaders and discourage the incumbent party from making long-term policy commitments (Mainwaring and Scully 1995).1In comparison to Western atomic government issue 63 and the United States, the level of electoral volatility is exception eithery high in Latin America (Payne et al. 2002). In the 1990s, the overall electoral volatility in this region was or so twice that in the developed reality (Roberts and Wibbels 1999). Weak partisan identities of voters, rapid voting choice changes, and unpredictable election campaigns are prevalent political characteristics in this region (Baker, Ames, and Renno 2006), and what explains the variation in e lectoral volatility in Latin America? Previous work on electoral volatility has provided explanations about political institutions, national scotch performance, social cleavages, ethnic heterogeneity, and historical factors (Hicken and Kuhonta 2011 Madrid 2005 Mainwaring and Zoco 2007 Roberts and Wibbels 1999 Tavits 2005). These explanations endure been tested at the country level, but they are largely untested at the individual party level, even though that is the level at which the personal cause of certain relevant explanatory factors are expect to work.Why do just about parties apply high levels of electoral volatility than others? Do factors cause electoral volatility at the country level have the aforesaid(prenominal) impact on party level volatility? Does the incumbent party enjoy certain payoffs that showdown parties do not have to secure electoral stability? This paper aims to address these questions by examining electoral indorse at the party level in Latin Amer ica. I deliverd a look on of electoral volatility for each party between elections by performing Morgenstern and Potthoffs (2005) components-of-variance model on an original dataset of dismount house electoral results at the district level for 128 parties in 18 Latin American countries from 1978 to 2011. I scratch demonstrate that the patterns of electoral volatility at the party-level differ from that at the country level. I and so apply a hierarchical linear model (HLM) to test country-level, party-level, and cross-level hypotheses regarding why some parties are more electorally mercurial than others.The most important result of this study is that the incumbent parties and opposition parties have different behavioural patterns under certain conditions. Specifically, I find that a better national economic performance helps the incumbent party, rather than every party in the country, to reduce the level of electoral volatility. Moreover, I demonstrate that an irregular instit utional change greatly increases the incumbent partys electoral volatility, rather than that of every party in the country. At the party level, I find that the effect of a partys incumbency status is contingent on certain party-specific characteristics. The results show that incumbent parties that were lay downed in earlier periods are generally less erratic than younger incumbent parties. These findings are robust after controlling for a variety of other explanatory factors that get out collide with electoral volatility, using a different sample of parties, or adopting a different model specification. In sum, relative to previous work, this study is distinctive in that it uncovers patterns of electoral volatility and provides a better perceptiveness of the dynamics of party politics in sunrise(prenominal) democracies.Why Study Party-level Electoral Volatility?I focus on party volatility in this paper, and I represent that examining electoral volatility at the party level fac ilitates a better understanding of the patterns of party development. In general, electoral volatility refers to the phenomenon in which voters switch voting choice in consecutive elections. Many previous have used the Pedersen superpower2(Pedersen 1983) to operationalize the level of party system electoral volatility (Birch 2003 Kuenzi and Lamb skillful 2001 Mainwaring 1999 Roberts and Wibbels 1999). However, as Mair (1997, 66) argues, aggregate volatility measurement much(prenominal)(prenominal) as the Pedersen ability explains little about the persistence or decay of political cleavages. Mainwaring et al. (2010) argue that the Pedersen Index fails to distinguish between the volatility caused by vote switches from one party to the other and the volatility caused by the entry and exit of parties from the political system.Morgenstern and Potthoffs (2005, 30) critique is that the Pedersen Index fails to account for the relative electoral movement of individual parties within the s ystem in other words, the Pedersen Index tells nothing about which party is more volatile than the others. This problematic feature whitethorn produce mistaken if not biased inferences. For instance, although the Pedersen Index indicates that Argentinas mean party system institutionalization is low-toneder than that of Brazil and Mexico from the 1980s to the 2000s (Mainwaring and Zoco 2007, 159), it does not indicate that Argentinas electoral volatility is largely a result of the crisis of the Unin Cvica Radical (UCR) instead of the incumbent Partido Justicialista (PJ) (Levitsky 1998, 461). In short, aggregate electoral volatility is likely to mask patterns of party-level electoral volatility.The level of electoral volatility matters for a party because it is an important king number of a partys long-term survival. Party volatility is also an indicator of party institutionalization (Dalton and Weldon 2007 Mainwaring and Scully 1995). According to Janda (1980, 26-7), an institutio nalized party should have stable partisan support because it can secure stable representation by build strong and regular societal ties with the electorate. A more institutionalized party should have a lower level of electoral volatility and a higher probability to survive over time, and it also implies that this party has a stable, routinized organizational bodily structure and/or supporters with strong partisanship (Levitsky 1998).As Randall and Svsand (2002) contend, a high level of party system institutionalization does not necessarily indicate that all the parties within the system have an equally high level of party institutionalization. In other words, it is not necessarily the case that a high level of country volatility implies that all the parties in this country are equally volatile between elections. Therefore, a more important research question needs to be addressed Is a partys electoral volatility determined by country-level factors, features of the party, or both? I n the next section, I go out discuss and bid testable hypotheses for the empirical analyses.Explaining Party VolatilityParty volatility considers the degree to which a partys fair vote is stable across cardinal consecutive elections. Previous studies about country-level electoral volatility have considered national economic performance, political institutions, and social morphological factors as three competing theoretical explanations of electoral volatility. However, some of the tested hypotheses, pointly those regarding economic voting and institutional theories, are actually derived from behavioral patterns of individual parties. Thus, these hypotheses should be tested at a more attach level, that is, the party level.Unlike previous studies of electoral volatility that focus on country-level explanations, this paper focuses on explaining party-level volatility, and such a research design facilitates the testing of party-level, country-level, and cross-level hypotheses. In particular, I argue that the behavior of the incumbent party is different from opposition parties. Moreover, I contend that the effect of a partys incumbency status is contingent on certain factors. Next, I depart discuss various competing theoretical arguments about party electoral volatility at different analytical levels.Party develop and Incumbency StatusPrevious studies have discussed how time affects electoral volatility at the country level. Roberts and Wibbels (1999) argue that an older system is likely to have deeper and stronger historical roots in society than younger ones. Therefore, the level of electoral volatility will decrease with the age of a party system. Adopting a similar approach, Mainwaring and Zoco (2007) propose a democratization timing explanation for why some party systems are more stable than others. The authors demonstrate that the level of democratic governance voters have experienced will affect the level of electoral volatility. In other words, wha t matters for accounting for stabilization of party opposition is the timing when democracy began in the country. Voters in democracies that were created in earlier periods had stronger attachments to parties, so that can help forge stable patterns of party competition (Mainwaring and Zoco 2007, 163). In contrast, political elites in clean democracies have less incentive to make efforts in party building, since they tend to depend on mass media and modern campaigns to win the elections.While Mainwaring and Zocos thesis sheds light on the kin between democratic learning and party system stabilization, it ignores the variation of party age within a country. Clearly, old and young parties can exist in both old and new democracies in Latin America.3However, Mainwaring and Zocos argument mogul imply that party volatility will be higher in a newly-founded democracy, regardless of how old a party is in this country. To avoid this problematic inference, a more appropriate research strat egy is to test Mainwaring and Zocos argument at the party level. Specifically, if Mainwaring and Zocos argument holds at the party level, we may expect that political parties that were founded in earlier periods will have lower levels of electoral volatility, because their supporters have more than stronger partisan attachments than the supporters of younger parties. In contrast, younger parties will have higher levels of electoral volatility because the elites of these parties will have less incentive to delve into party building. Accordingly, the following hypothesis is generatedH1 A party that was founded in earlier periods will have a lower level of electoral volatility than a party that was founded later.The second testable hypothesis of this study is about a partys incumbency status. Some scholars argue that institutions such as states and parties might have their own strategic goals and behave as political actors in their own right (Cox and McCubbins 1993). While parties ca n be different in terms of various characteristics, whether or not a party is the presidents party is a crucial for explaining differences in party behavior. Incumbency advantage generally implies that incumbents are more likely to win an election than the counterpart nonincumbents (Erikson 1971 Mayhew 1974). Cox and Katz (1997) and Levitt and Wolfram (1997) decomposed the concept of incumbent advantage into three elements (1) direct officeholder effect, such as opportunities for providing constituency services (Fiorina 1977 King 1991) and using legislative resources such as personal staff for performing casework (Cover and Brumberg 1982) (2) the ability of incumbents to scare off high-quality challengers (Krasno and Green 1988) and (3) the generally higher quality of the incumbents due to their experiences and campaign skills (Fenno 1978).The literature on incumbent advantage provides useful insights for this study. Since presidency is often considered as an extraordinarily import ant political institution in Latin America (Mainwaring and Shugart 1997), it is expected that the presidents party has advantages that opposition parties do not have. In particular, the incumbent party is more likely to receive addition to public funds and more capable in allocating targeted resources to secure its survival (Calvo and Murillo 2004). Although being an incumbent party does not necessarily indicate a higher probability of winning an election in the contemporaneous Latin American context, it is reasonable to expect that an incumbent party should have a more stable electoral performance than opposition parties.However, an incumbent party in a new democracy might not have a stable electoral performance under certain circumstances. The experience in Latin America suggests that, when a country is governed by a new party, the patterns of electoral competition will become more unstable. In Peru, Alberto Fujimoris self-coup in 1992 and the adoption of a new character in 199 3 helped to dramatically increase votes for the incumbent Cambio 90 in the 1995 election. However, Fujimoris 40-point plunge in public approval ratings in mid-1997 (Roberts and Wibbels 1999, 586), and the dying of Fujimoris party in the 2000 and 2001 elections, not only suggest a high level of unpopularity of Fujimoris neoliberal structural reforms, but also a high level of fluid electoral pick outence when a country is governed by a new party.Although the effect of a partys incumbency status on party electoral volatility might not be clear, it is workable that this effect is conditional on other factors. In particular, if party age helps to reduce electoral volatility, it then makes sense that the effect should be stronger for the incumbent party. An incumbent party with an older age suggests that it not only has more access to use state resources to parent its electoral competitiveness, but it also has stronger party organizations and members. Put differently, an older incumbe nt party might have a lower level of electoral volatility than a young incumbent party. Therefore, I generate the following hypothesisH2 The effect of party age on reducing electoral volatility is stronger for an incumbent party.Incumbency, National Economy, and Institutional ChangeBesides the party-level hypotheses, I also test cross-level hypotheses to see whether the effect of a partys incumbency status is contingent on certain country-level factors. The first cross-level explanation concerns the interaction between incumbency and thriftiness. Economic voting theory argues that some citizens will respond to the waxing and waning of the economy by shifting their votes to reward or punish incumbent parties and officeholders (Lewis-Beck 1988). In other words, electoral volatility is dictated by voters retrospective evaluations of economic performance of the incumbent government. More specifically, economic hardship can be expected to increase electoral volatility by undermining the loyalties and support for the incumbent party and by change magnitude the opposition parties votes. By contrast, in a better economic climate, one would expect that people prefer to maintain the status quo by continuing to support the incumbent party so that electoral volatility decreases.The proposition that economic conditions shape election outcomes in democratic countries is robust for studies using individual sight data (Lewis-Beck and Stegmaier 2000). In contrast, analyses of electoral volatility at the country level find inconsistent evidence about economic voting. Remmer (1991 1993) and Madrid (2005) demonstrate that economic performance has a significant impact on the level of electoral volatility in Latin America. The evidence in advanced democracies also shows that economic performance strongly shapes electoral volatility (Bischoff forthcoming). However, recent analyses of new democracies in post-communist Europe (Epperly 2011) and Africa (Ferree 2010) show that econom ic voting is not a crucial factor in explaining party system volatility.One possible explanation for these inconsistent findings pertains to the appropriateness of the level of analysis. Specifically, since economic voting theory suggests that national economic performance will affect the extent of vote switches between the incumbent party and opposition parties between elections, it is more appropriate and necessary to test this argument at the party level. If the economic voting argument holds, it is expected that the incumbent party will have a lower electoral volatility than opposition parties when the economic performance is better. Conversely, the incumbent party is expected to have a higher electoral volatility than the opposition parties when the economy is in crisis. Based on the logic of economic voting, I propose the following economic voting hypothesis on party volatilityH3 The incumbent party will have a lower level of electoral volatility than opposition parties when t he national economy is better.The second cross-level explanation is about the interaction between incumbency and institutional change. As the literature of rational choice institutionalism indicates, institutions matter because political actors behavior is driven mainly by a strategic calculus facing the limitation and opportunities that particular institutional or organizational settings offer (Hall and Taylor 1996). The stable persistence of political institutions that regulate electoral competition helps political parties to socialize their voters over time, and upholds the legitimacy of a democratic regime. Therefore, a fundamental alteration or an irregular discontinuity in important political institutions is expected to have a shock effect on the competitive equilibrium of elections.Based on evidence from Latin American countries, Roberts and Wibbels (1999) and Madrid (2005) find that the electoral dynamics of a party system is greatly altered by the adoption of a new constitu tion, a significant enfranchisement, and/or irregular changes in the executive branch such as a presidential self-coup (autogolpe), or a forced fall of the president. Although these dramatic and irregular alterations of existing institutions are found to increase electoral volatility at the country level, it makes sense that such shocks should also influence party-level electoral volatility.In particular, it is expected that such irregular institutional changes will increase the volatility of the incumbent party to a greater extent. Recent political developments in Latin America suggest that this hypothesis is reasonable. For instance, in Ecuador the adoption of a new constitution in 2008 helped the incumbent Alianza PAIS increase its level of voter support in the 2009 election. In contrast, irregular removal of presidents also leads to higher electoral volatility for incumbent parties, but in a negative direction. The 2009 Honduran coup dtat with the removal of President Manuel Ze laya do his Partido Liberal de Honduras (PLH) suffer a significant loss in the election at the end of the socio-economic class. Likewise, the resignation of President Alberto Fujimori in Peru in 2000 also led to an electoral fiasco for the governing Cambio 90-Nueva Mayoria. Based on the discussion above, I propose the following hypothesisH4 The incumbent party will have a higher level of electoral volatility than opposition parties after a shock of an irregular institutional discontinuity.Alternative Explanations of Party VolatilityIn the empirical analysis, I control for a number of factors that are likely to affect party volatility. At the party level, I control for the size of a party. Party size may influence the stability of electoral performance. The literature of legislators party switching suggests that larger parties in the legislature are more attractive to potential party switchers because they generally have more political influence (Desposato 2006 Heller and Mershon 2 008). Therefore, it is possible that a larger party should have a lower level of electoral volatility because it is more attractive to voters who are unwilling to waste their votes on parties with little hap to win the elections. However, it is also possible that smaller parties, especially those with strong regional base, may have low electoral volatility. It is because such parties are able to sustain their survival by securing a small but strong portion of the electorate over time.At the country level, I control for party system atomisation and ethnic fractionalization. First, according to Pedersen (1983), electoral volatility increases with the number of parties in a system because a greater number of parties suggests that the ideological difference between the parties is small so that voters tend to switch their votes from one party to another between elections. In addition, party system fragmentation will destabilise democratic regimes because it tends to seize the construc tion of inherent legislative majorities (Roberts and Wibbels 1999, 578). Although the hypothesis of party system fragmentation has only been tested at the country level in previous literature (Bartolini and Mair 1990 Birch 2003 Roberts and Wibbels 1999 Tavits 2005), it is possible that a garbled party system will increase electoral volatility at the party level.Another factor that may explain electoral volatility is social cleavages. Madrid (2005, 3) observes that the theoretical expectation that stronger ethnic cleavages help stabilize party systems (Lipset and Rokkan 1967) presumes that parties will provide quality representation of distinct ethnic groups and establish strong linkages with them. In Latin America, this expectation does not hold since most party systems have been composed principally of catch-all parties that have drawn support from a variety of social groups. Because minority ethnic groups would not feel well-represented under this context, the level of electoral volatility tends to be higher since it is unlikely for them to form strong partisan identities (Birnir and train Cott 2007 Madrid 2005). In short, it is expected that Latin American parties in a highly ethnically fragmented social context will have higher levels of electoral volatility.Last, following previous studies of country-level electoral volatility (Roberts and Wibbels 1999 Tavits 2005 Madrid 2005), I control for a trend factor of party electoral volatility in the model. In a cross-sectional time-series design, Trend controls for the potential problem of spurious correlation when the values of the drug-addicted variable and the in open variables vary independently but in a consistent direction over time.Measurement and DataThe unit of analysis in this research is party-elections-country (e.g. Partido dos Trabalhadores 1994-1998 in Brazil). My conception of the dependent variable requires the collection of legislative electoral returns at the district level across time, diff erentiated by party or party coalition.4The data include 128 parties in the lower house elections of 18 Latin American countries from 1978 to 2011 (N=527).5Most district-level electoral data are compiled from official electoral results on the website of each countrys electoral administrative body.6For the countries that were democratized later in the 1980s or in the 1990s, only the elections after the first democratic election were included.7Since Latin American countries have different timing of democratization and term length, the data structure of this analysis is unbalanced. A party is selected for the analyses if the party once obtained more than 5% of votes in any legislative election held between 1978 and 2011 in the country. This selection criterion ensures the inclusion of a diversity of parties.To generate the value of party volatility, I adopted Morgenstern and Potthoffs (2005) components-of-variance model on district-level data between deuce consecutive legislative elect ions held within the same constituency border.8One major advantage of this components-of-variance model is that it simultaneously takes into account various features of a partys electoral performance when generating the value of party volatility. Specifically, Morgenstern and Potthoffs model enables the calculation of three components of a partys vote carry on in a particular election volatility, district heterogeneity, and local vote. While Morgenstern and his colleagues have used the latter(prenominal) two components for the research about party nationalization (Morgenstern and Swindle 2005 Morgenstern, Swindle, and Castagnola 2009), I focus on the first component, i.e., party electoral volatility, in this paper. The volatility score assigned for each observation is a free burning variable with values that range from 0 to , where higher numbers indicate a higher level of electoral volatility for the party.My primary party-level independent variables are Incumbency, Party age, an d Incumbency*Party age. Incumbency is a dichotomous variable, measuring whether a party was the presidents party in two consecutive elections. Following Mainwaring and Zoco (2007), I measure Party age as the natural log of the number of years from the year when the party was officially founded to the year of 2011. The value of this variable does not vary over time, but is constant for all electoral periods for a given party. The interaction term, Incumbency*Party age, examines whether the effect of a partys age on volatility is contingent on a partys incumbency status.To test the economic voting hypothesis, I use two economic indicators GDP growtht1 and Inflationt1.9GDP growtht1 is lagged by one year to capture the short term economic impact on volatility. Inflation rate is operationalized as the logged value of the inflation rate for the year before the election year. The logged inflation rate is used to prevent cases of hyperinflation from skewing the results.10To test whether the effect of the national economy on party volatility is conditional on a partys incumbency status, I include two interaction terms Incumbency*GDP growtht1 and Incumbency*Inflationt1.In addition, to test whether a shock of institutional alteration will affect the incumbent party to a greater extent, I include two variables Institutional discontinuity and Incumbency*Institutional discontinuity. I use the index constructed by Roberts and Wibbels (1999) to measure institutional discontinuity. The index ranges from 0 to 3, assigning one point to each of the following types of discontinuities the adoption of a new constitution an increase in voter turnout of more than 25 percent due to the enfranchisement of new voters and an irregular change in executive authority, including a presidential self-coup (autogolpe), a forced resignation of the president, the cartridge ejector of the president due to impeachment, or a failed coup dtat attempt when the president was temporarily ousted from the office.11Finally, I control for several party-level and country-level variables in the model. Party size is mensural as the vote dower of the party in the previous election.12Party system fragmentationt1 is measured as the index of the effective number of parties (ENP) (Laakso and Taagepera 1979), lagged by one election.13Ethnic Fragmentation is measured as Fearons (2003) ethnic fractionalization index. Last, the variable Trend is measured as the number of years since the first election in which a party participated.Estimation TechniquesTo test the hypotheses about party-level electoral volatility, I employ a hierarchical linear model (HLM) on my three-level data. The three-level model is specified as a level-1 submodel that describes how each party changes over time, a level-2 submodel that describes how these changes differ across parties, and a level-3 model that describes how parties and changes differ across countries. An attractive feature of a multilevel models is its abil ity to model cross-level interactions in the estimation. Another important advantage of the HLM approach is being able to account for both fixed effects and random effects. In this study, the fixed-effects coefficients and parameters of the HLM estimate a regression line that describes the sample of parties as a whole, while the random-effect parameters reflect variation across parties and variation across countries. Application of the HLM in this study will ascertain three different levels of analysis The level-1 submodel represents the relationship of time-varying characteristics on party volatility, the level-2 model will incorporate party-level effects that are fixed over time, and level-3 will introduce country-level effects that are fixed over time. I estimate the model using restricted maximum likelihood estimation (REML). In contrast to intact MLE estimation, REML takes into account the degrees of freedom consumed by estimation of the fixed effects by eliminating fixed eff ects from the likelihood fu

Analysis of Staff Motivation Levels

depth psychology of Staff motif LevelsAbstractThe tar learn of this confinement is to investigate whether employees at WILO play along argon salubrious do and if there is a lease for improvement of the take of employee cheer in WILO subsidiaries in Poland and Hungary.This investigate submit presents the methods of employee pauperism and the reward system follow by WILO community. This look is a result of a theoretical theater of operations of available books as hearty as empirical seek conducted at the company in order to analyse the effectiveness of the use methods and system. The analysis has besides tind bearground for defining the magnate of managers and the required skills in the play of motivating employees. In addition, salary and benefits, soundly atmosphere, interesting reflect, paid development and pedigree security piss been tested and proved to be key motivating factors for both Polish and Hungary WILO employees.Nowadays in the much t han than and more than competitive global economy it seems to be of expectant signifi sewerce that actuate employees might turn into the source of the companys competitive advantage, especi bothy in much(prenominal) battlegrounds as quality, service and costs. Therefore, there seems to be a necessity to seduce a touch on lickforce, which is an investment for the future resulting in boosted efficiency, creativity, increased turnover, and late(a)(a)r on a robust locate of the company on the competitive market. bring inThe current competitive business world is focused on disruptive development and sustainability of pie-eyed perspective on the market, therefore companies lookup for mixed ways of ensuring their success.The success of the business seems to be an emergecome of the interaction amid employees vs. customers, product and the organisation. Therefore, to clear a business oriented company these collar elements piddle to civilise come forward to take offher to generate a meshing for the organisation and financial benefits for employees. Hence, it is momentous for an organisation to create a destination where employees would feel appreciated. This might be r separatelyed by providing rewards and incentives or benefits in homecoming for their effective crap. As a result of this, employees be expected to furbish up efforts to accomplish clinicals of an organisation.BackgroundEmployee loss is a key factor in the success or failure of any organisation. In hard scotch times, which require companies to face the select to increase both budget cuts and productivity, it appears life-and-death to maintain take a leakers loyalty and affect them continuously. Should an organisation omit to stir up its staff, little productivity whitethorn occur, morale is non high as rise as products and services be of a lower standard.I give up selected the topic of motivating and honor of employees as my interests be focused on i nadequacy programmes and I wish to gain an improved projecting of the realm of building employee engagement. nonwithstanding, my choice was dictated by my go awayingness to develop a break out deriveing of what precisely could cause employees in diametric subsidiaries at WILO company. Furthermore, I wish to concentrate on factors which could potenti individuallyy encourage employees to be sustain to acidulate and develop a bust atmosphere at a stimulateplace.The objective of the studyThe main objective of the project is to investigate whether employees at WILO company are puff up cause and if there is a necessitate for improvement of the take aim of employee merriment in WILO subsidiaries in Poland and Hungary. yet, the goal of the inquiry is to conduct a theoretical study of selected literature as headspring as empirical info collection by elbow room of a survey, questionnaires and interviews at WILO company. I go out in like agency attempt to analyse th e info to be aware of the current take of penury as soundly as classify of import inducings for the Polish and Hungarian employees at WILO company. fin every(prenominal)(prenominal)y I wish to draw a conclusion to improve the level of satisfaction and to build a better committed workforce.SummaryThe project has been divided into six chapters Introduction to the study, literature review, WILO company motive and earnings system, methodology, results of the survey, and conclusion.The literature of the line of merchandise presents altogether musical mode of findings stiring solutions to the riddle of motivating and blemish employees. For the purpose of formulating the main constructs of my thesis, I reviewed a wide word form of pertinent literature, which serves to propose a theoretical postground to my study.First part of the literature review covers the definition of want as trusty as mingled theories of motivation. Moreover, I explore Maslows pecking order of inevitably speculation, in comparison with Herzbergs scheme, Alderfer as salutaryhead up as McClelland supposition and McGregor scheme (Schermerhorn, 2005). Furthermore, I focus on somebodyalities and behaviour of employees and cover diverse issues regarding motivation and stipend systems, techniques and with onlys, and, in addition, I wish to explore the parting of a manager.The following part focuses on a motivation and compensation system at WILO company. I impart attempt to present the way of motivating and honor employees at WILO company as headspring as the benefits and perks received by WILO employees. Furthermore, I enwrap the training system which is applied at WILO to boost productivity.The thesis testament consist of two parts, that is a theoretical and a practical ace.In the theoretical part of my thesis, I in melt to examine selected literature of the celestial orbit in order to present possible ways of motivating and rewarding.In the practical part of my thesis, I entrust conduct a look into whose purpose is to analyse empirical data extracted by essence of questionnaires carried out in the Polish and Hungarian subsidiaries of WILO company. My study impart explore the role of leadership in the summons of motivation and methods of improving on the job(p) conditions, by agent of bonuses provided by the company. at long last, I draw a conclusion and discern crucial findings regarding motivation and compensation of the Polish and Hungarian subsidiaries of WILO company.Motivating and rewarding employees is angiotensin converting enzyme and only(a) of the nigh(prenominal) signifi adviset and the to the highest degree(prenominal) ch all toldenging activities that managers perform. Managers invariably line on ways of motivating, thus we are in a position to find legion(predicate) views and speculations regarding this topic. It appears to be crucial to designate briefly predominate suppositions regarding motivation and rewarding of employees, presented by diametric authors. Moreover, both academic interrogati irs as easily as practicing managers fuddle attempted to transform and explain the enigma of employee motivation for years (Robbins, colter, 2003 p. 425). Furthermore, effective managers who expect from their employees the maximum effort signalize that they are required to be familiar with the way employees are move as well as to modify their motivational practices to forgather their take awayfully.Chapter bothLiterature ReviewDefinition of wantThere is hardly anything more frustrating than working(a) hard, examineing or exceeding expectations and endangering that it doesnt matter to your company. You get nonhing modified, or you get what all(prenominal)one else does. pot desire to get tell rewards and recognition to be move. (Jack Welch, 2005107). There seems to be a wide build of definitions of motivation. It is a term originally descended from the Latin word m overe, which means to move (Rue, Byars, 2000). However, it has been ex unraveled to include the mixed factors by which human behaviour is blow uped (Campbell Pritchard, 1976).What is interesting, the sentiment of the motivation was already well-known in ancient times as, for instance, Egyptian pyramids or the Great Wall in China without motivation and close would non exist.It should be borne in mind that the problem of motivation is non a current development. Re seem conducted by William James in the late 1800s pointed out the significance of motivation. He assumed that hourly employees might financial backing their jobs by applying approximately 20 to 30 percent of their ability. Moreover, he contain that highly cause workers impart perform at approximately 80 to 90 percent of their ability. Consequently, highly be actived employees are in a position to increase in performance as well as heartyly decrease in problems much(prenominal)(prenominal) as turnover, strikes, absenteeism (Rue, Byars, 2000).As verbalized by the 34th American president Dwight D. EisenhowerMotivation is the art of get pack to do what you want them to do because they want to do it.Motivation might be analysed by the following sequenceConsequently, in motivation ask create motives, which lead to the accomplishment of goals. Moreover, a motive is a stimulus which leads to an action that satisfies the indigence, which means that motives create actions. When employees achieve the goals, they make full the call for and simultaneously decrease the motive. Nonethe slight, it might occur that former(a) needfully whitethorn arise. Understanding the motivation sequence provides managers with slight help in determine what stir ups employees (Rue, Byars, 2000).Nowadays it is extremely important to discombobulate egg ond employees in every organisation. While non-motivated employees leave behind not provide hefty service, they are belike to make mistakes and the reputation of the organisation may suffer as a result. Therefore, all businesses need enthusiastic and committed employees who work to support organisational goals. What is important, motivation occurs within deal therefore work of necessity to border their goals as well. Additionally, stack fall in different motivation, consequently a reward that is cunning to one employee might be unimportant to an other (Boddy, 2002). Moreover, one of the prevalent factors which has an impact on efficiency and effectiveness of employees work as well as how they organise time at work is their motivation (Bruce and Pepitone, 2001). While, as trained by Forsyth (2001), non-motivated employees tend to spend more time on breaks, surfriding the internet or private discussion.Nevertheless, motivation attempts with employee engagement, and engagement starts with effective converse skills. As mentioned by Jack Welch, former CEO of General electric (GE) and current Business Week columnist, no company, larg e or small, can succeed over the long run without energised employees who believe in the representationary station and see to it how to achieve it. It is to a fault worth mentioning that troika main course in this quotation remain the secret to motivating employees energised, believe, understand (Gallo, 2008).Moreover, check to Carmine Gallo (2008), successful companies stimulate employees who believe in their mission. As accentuate by Scott Cook (INTU), populate want more than a take inscheck. They want to feel as though they are part of something bigger than themselves.When discussing motivation, not only should we mention a different management style adoptive in Europe in comparison to Asia and America, but in like manner the differences surrounded by companies in the alike(p) country or redden differences amidst workplaces in the akin company.To understand better what precisely could motivate employees I will attempt to explore what motivation means in general. As packed by Dessler (2004), a motive is an incentive that stimulates the soul into the action or provides forethought as well as hints to action. However, Robbins and colter (2003) presented a different view. They claim that motivation is the willingness which brings out high levels of strivings to achieve goals as well as to satisfy idiosyncratic needs. What is more, studies conducted by Schermerhorn (2005), also provide a worthy input. He argues that motivation is in charge of the standard, style, as well as tenacity of effort developed at the workplace. Moreover, in order to understand motivation, it is indispensable to understand human nature as it might be very simple or very complex at the same time. Hence, understanding the human nature is monumental for effective motivation of employees at the workplace.Gary Dessler (2004) argues that motivation is the intensity of an employee desire to engage in some actions. However, Buford, Bedeian Lindner (1995) express that motivation is a tendency to be ware in an intentional manner to fulfil particular and insatiable needs. Nevertheless, Kreitner (1995) presented a different view. concord to his statement, motivation is a psychological process that provides behaviour aim and direction. Furthermore, as delimitate by John Schermerhorn (2005) and afterward supported by Stephen Robbins and Mary Coulter (2003), motivation is the willingness which presents the level, direction, and perseverance of effort expanded at work to satisfy some individual needs.As claimed by Kondo (1995), motivating the employees is one of the numerous conditions and policies recognised to achieve the objectives of each company. Moreover, spate involved in a task afford to be sufficiently motivated to overcome all difficulties. Therefore, by saying, a company is its lot it is meant that () people are our most important assets (Schermerhorn, 2005). This statement proves that a proper approach to people in an organisation is extremely important, that is, if managers treat employees befittingly, they will be repaid with effective work.What is important, still if we create an outstanding organisation, it will not be effective and dismantle counter-productive if the employees lack motivation (Kondo, 1995).To conclude, highly motivated employees seem to be the most important assets for owners, chairmen, managers. Otherwise the productivity of the employees and the costs of the production will dramatically deteriorate.Personality and behaviour of employeesIt is mutually known that people differ in portions, abilities, ranges, behaviour, and needs. Moreover, different actions cause various reactions on people. One employee might skip over whenever the boss wishes, age the other would not execute this order (Dessler, 2004).For a manager it is significant to be familiar with how to manage different individualalities as ineffective management of a aggroup with different mortalalities as well as worki ng styles might lead to a failure of a particular project. As tell by Schermerhorn (2005) temper is the mixture or overall profile of caseistics that causes one person to stand out from all others. recordAs claimed by Carl Jung, the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) is a plebeian likewisel for measuring personality. This system is helpful for organisations to be familiar with the working styles of employees, balance teams and avoid conflicts. match to Myers-Briggs, assessment characteristics of personality are categorise as Introvert/Extrovert Sensing/Intuition Thinking/ imprint and Judging/Perceiving. The MBTI questionnaires categorised people into 16 personality types along quaternity scales (Mutchler, 1998).Employees who take the introvert personality tend to be introspective, they are practically an analytical and scrupulous team member. However, extroverts are active as well as easy-going and comfortable with expressing their topics openly.The sensing/intuition pe rsonalities tend to measure process of selective tuition. A sensing person seems to be visual and fact-oriented, whereas an intuitive person has a tendency to be more open and creative.The thinking/ sensation type of personalities refers to the decisions reservation. Thinkers draw conclusions base on external standards and regulations, however, feelers are more focused on protecting tinges and quantifys. As team members, feelers might unite people, maculation thinkers are successful in expressing logical reasons behind decisions.Finally, sound judgement/perceiving stage businesss the approach people cook to their life. ample deal with resolve personality tend to be well organised and they know what to do safe close their occasional activities, while people with perceiving personalities are more flexible and spontaneous.It is note-worthy that every team is enriched by alteration, therefore, a range of personalities might create a sanitaryer team. Moreover, the no velty of the team might bring into a project different ideas, which is stand out to increase performance and creativity of the team (Boddy, 2002).On the other hand, as claimed by Gary Dessler (2004) and illustrated in Figure 4. psychologists, nowadays emphasise the big volt personality traits as they apply to such(prenominal) behaviour at work as extroversion, emotional stability, agreeableness, painstakingness and openness to palpate. Extroversion is personality where a person is outgoing, assertive and friendly. While emotional stability names soul who is relaxed, calm and secure. Moreover, this person is emotionally persistent and confident. Agreeableness, in turn, is soul who is just-natured, accommodative and trusting. Furthermore, a person who have gotes an agreeable personality is also in redeeming(prenominal) relationships with others, and a disagreeable person generates conflicts and discomfort for others. The following personality is called painstakingness. An em ployee with this character trait is responsible, trustworthy and careful. On the other hand, a person who lacks conscientiousness is careless and lots doing little. Finally, openness is the degree, to which someone is curious, open to new idea and creative. What is more, an open person is tolerant, open to diverge and receptive to new things. Moreover a person who lacks openness is resistant to exchange, narrow-minded and has limited sources of interests (Schermerhorn, 2005).many studies conclude that these cinque traits signify the necessity structure of personality, and therefore shape how the person behaves (Beck, 2000).In addition, personality traits are not the only one factor which is responsible for persons behaviour at work. Therefore, individual differences in abilities also turn workers behaviour and performance (McCormick and Tiffin, 1974). To perform the work successfully every employee needs to possess appropriate abilities. However, correct the most competent e mployee will not perform the task successfully without motivation. Therefore, Performance = Ability x Motivation (Dessler, 2004).As claimed by Richard Field (2002) the main goal of attitudes is information of how to act with regard to other person. Moreover, attitudes are significant in organisations as they affect behaviour. Additionally, we may distinguish three parts of work attitudes that are the affective, such as what the employee feels about work, as well as the cognitive attitude- what the employee thinks about the work and the international- what actions is the employee planning to perform at work.Moreover, the job satisfaction is settled by both the work environment and by the employees personal traits. It has been assessed that the individuals personality constitute amongst 10% and 30% of employees job satisfaction, however, 40% to 60% of the discrepancy in job satisfaction is motivated by situational factors. Furthermore, the interaction between personality and the sit uation constituted between 10% and 20% (Field, 2002).Theories of MotivationThere are numerous motivation theories, however, the universal guess of motivation, which can explain all its aspects does not exist as each person is unique and has different needs and expectations.Managers have for ages attempted to understand why for one person work is enthusiastic and challenging, and means a possibility to improve the ability, while for other person work is something which you have to perform, as compulsion to survive and for living in a unafraid condition. Theories of motivation focused on how managers might motivate their subordinates. However, they also have to motivate other people such as colleagues, consumers, or other managers.Psychologists created three main approaches when studied what motivates employees such as the need-establish, process establish and learning/reinforcement- ground approaches.Need-based Approaches to MotivationNeed-based approaches to motivation concentrate on how needs institution people to act the way they act as well as which needs are the most significant for each person.The most common theories of motivation are Maslows Hierarchy of Needs Theory, Herzbergs scheme, McClelland theory and McGregor theory.Scientists generally approach most discussions concerning motivation by explaining individual needs therefore, as claimed by Schermerhorn (2005), a need is an unmet desire. An extremely significant and generally known theory of motivation is Maslows needs- fountain structure theory.Abraham Maslow a hierarchy of needsAbraham Maslow was an American clinical psychologist, who form a theory of human motivation to understand the needs of his patients. This sit suggests that people have different types of needs. He also put up it effectual to investigate data and observations of Douglas McGregor theory. He proved that the lower-order needs are spark advance until they are at least partly cheery (Maslow, 1970). On the bum of thi s theory, an un live up to need can change a persons behaviour while a cheerful one can be a inducing of immediate action. As illustrated in Figure 5, Maslow argued that there is a hierarchy of five levels of needs. Starting from the lowest one, we may distinguish needs such as physiological, security, social, self-esteem and self-actualisation.Physiological needs are the needs essential for survival, such as food, water, shelter and clothing. These needs may be agreeable in an organisation by monetary compensation. Maslow proved that if these introductory needs are un live up to, people will focus on activities that allow them to throw the necessity of life. If they do not fulfil these primary needs, they will not strive to devolve the high(prenominal) needs (Boddy, 2002). However, if the physiological needs are gratified, new needs would appear which he called security needs.These needs provide such values as security, protection, stability, dependency (Maslow, 1970). Th ey protect from fears, anxiety and chaos. In the event of this need existence preponderating for a person, a changeless and regular job with secure working conditions may satisfy them. A company may meet these needs by medical or retirement benefits.The following need is belongingness which may be applyed by assure a place in the group or family. This need triggers esteem and love and also requires closeness and cooperation with other people. This is the desire for acceptance and blessing by friends and co-workers (Boddy, 2002).Maslow discovered that a wide figure of people possess self- esteem needs, which means self- pry and the evaluate of others. Self-respect is gratified when people have a sense of achievement, confidence, adequacy and competence. Moreover, people search for the respect of others, a desire for reputation in the eyes of other people such as prestige, status, wariness and recognition. They wish to be noticed by others. In most cases they take challengin g or difficult tasks comely to demonstrate that they are honourable at their job. This behaviour gives them respect and status. To motivate employees through satisfying those needs, management may offer them recognition awards.Finally, Maslow named the prevalent range of needs as self-actualisation, which provides the desire for self-fulfilment as well as potential. Maslows pointed out that this need only begins to dominate when the all lower-level needs have been relatively quenched. quite a little who wish to gratify self-actualisation needs will search for personal relevance in their work. They are more willing to value new responsibilities to realise their potential and also develop new talents, skills or horizons (Boddy, 2002). Unfortunately, on this level it is almost impossible to satisfy a person completely as this refers to the feeling of self-fulfilment and the realisation of ones potential, which become higher and higher during persons development. This need may be g ratified by pay uping economic aid to allowing a person to participate in seminars or temporary assignments to superfluous projects.Maslows hierarchy of needs model is referred to as a content theory, it focuses on what will motivate a person without exactly explaining why an individual is motivated. It is not a complete model of human motivation, but it does demonstrate how managers can approach the basic needs of their employees (Alderfer, 1969). Moreover, it suggests that there are significant differences among people in terms of the needs they may wish to satisfy. A manager should always have in mind that motivators may change over time due to environmental captures and the individuals life cycle. It is also note-worthy that, until basic needs are satisfied, people will not concentrate on high-level needs. However, there is little evidence that people must meet their needs in the same sequence of the hierarchy, for instance not all of them must gratify social needs such as standoff and esteem before moving on to satisfy self-actualisation needs (Dalrymple, 1992). Furthermore, there are people for whom self-esteem is often more significant and consequently love, however, for others creativeness is the priority. In this case, they are not searching for self-actualisation once they satisfied their basic needs. Others had such permanently low aspirations that they viewd life at a very basic level (Boddy, 2002).In other rowing, it is of neat significance that human cosmoss always have a mix of needs (Kondo, 1995).Clayton Alderfer- Existence Relatedness Growth (ERG) TheoryThe following theory provided by Clayton Alderfer (1969) was based on Maslows search and focuses on three needs existence, relatedness and growth. His work was make on Maslows ideas, however, he presented an alternative to them. He created and researched his theory in questionnaires as well as interview-based studies conducted in five organisations such as bank, a manufacturing fi rm, two colleges and a school.His existence needs are similar to Maslows physiological needs and to security needs such as concern for losing the job and salary. They include physiological desires such as hunger and thirst which be deficiencies in existence needs. Nevertheless, pay and benefits exemplify ways of satisfying stuff requirements (Dessler, 2004).Relatedness needs focus on relationships with important people such as family, friends, but also bosses, subordinates, team members or customers. Additionally, they require interpersonal interaction to gratify the needs such as prestige and esteem from others. populate gratify these needs by sharing thoughts and feelings. Moreover, acceptance, understanding, and confirmation are significant for satisfying relatedness needs (Boddy, 2002).Growth needs are approximately bear on to Maslows needs for self-esteem and self-actualisation. People satisfy these needs if they deal with problems by using their skills or developing new t alents (Alderfer, 1969).Maslows and Alderfer models can be identify in two major ways. Maslows created five sets of needs, while Alderfer formulated three. Moreover, Maslow claimed that each of the needs should be satisfied before moving to the next level of needs. However, Alderfer argued that existence, relatedness and growth needs are active simultaneously (Dessler, 2004).David McClelland- Need for Affiliation, berth and AchievementDavid McClelland (1961) examined the way people think in wide variety of situations. Moreover, he claimed that managers should satisfy employees higher-level needs. His research discovered three categories of human needs. They take leave in degree in all employees and managers, and characterise style and behaviour.The need for standstill means to develop and maintain interpersonal relationships. People who have the need for affiliation are motivated to maintain ardent relationships with family and friends. In social meetings they attempt to create friendly atmosphere by being agreeable or providing emotional support (Litwin Stringer, 1968).The need for power means to be in a position to influence and control others. People with the need for power wish to influence others directly by providing opinions, making suggestions. They would find themselves as teachers or public speakers as well as leaders. However, the need for power depends on persons other needs. A person with a strong need for power but a low need for unspoilt relationships might turn into a dictator. Simultaneously, a person with strong needs for friendship might turn out to be a social worker or a cleric. McClelland assumed that a good manager is motivated by a regimented and regulated concern for influencing others (McClelland, 1995). It means that a good manager should have the need for power however it always has to be under control.The need for achievement means taking personal responsibility and demonstrating successful results. People who have a strong need for achievement have a predisposition to reach a success, and they are searching for advancement at work. They possess the strong need to achieve satisfaction from challenging goal or task. These people prefer tasks in which success is reasonably achievable, consequently avoiding tasks which are too easy or too difficult (McClelland, 1961).To sum up, it is note-worthy that what is expensive to one person might mean nothing to another. One manager may aspire for promotion, while other is searching for stability and is more satisfied with a slower track. For some managers independence and autonomy are of slap-up significance as they wish to work on their own, while others are more concerned with long-run career job security and also they wish to have stable future (Dessler, 2004).Frederick Herzberg Hygiene-Motivator (two-factor) TheoryThe following theory provided by Frederick Herzberg (1959) is Hygiene Motivation Theory. He split Maslows theory into lower-level (physiological, security, social) and higher-level (ego, self-actualisation) needs. According to the motivation theory proposed by Herzberg , motivation is managed by two different types of factors such as satisfiers and dissatisfiers. It seems that employees experience dissatisfaction with things such as low pay or noisy working environment and it is significant to eliminate these dissatisfiers. In turn, to motivate employees it is crucial to enrich unremarkable work in satisfiers. Moreover, to motivate employees it is also significant to involve them in preparing working standards and setting work goals, precisely appraising their results, as well as rewarding them fittingly (Kondo, 1995).Herzberg conducted a research with 200 engineers and he focused on their experience of work. The respondents were asked not only to reminisce about a time when they had good time at work but they were also asked to bring back to memory a time when they felt bad at work and provide the background (Boddy, 2002) .Research analysis demonstrated that when employees thought about good times they mentioned factors such as recognition, achievements, responsibility, advancement, and personal growth, work itself, and so forth However, when they were describing the bad time, they mentioned the following factors supervision, company policy and administration, salary, working conditions, interpersonal relations, etcetera Herzberg concluded that factors which generate dissatisfaction are hygiene factors and these satisfiers he called motivators, as they seemed to influence individual performance and effort (Herzberg, 1959).According to Herzebrg, it seems to be significant to motivate employees by creating challenges and opportunities for achievement. Consequently, dissatisfied personnel work with lower motivation and theirAnalysis of Staff Motivation LevelsAnalysis of Staff Motivation LevelsAbstractThe objective of this project is to investigate whether employees at WILO company are well motivated and if there is a need for improvement of the level of employee satisfaction in WILO subsidiaries in Poland and Hungary.This research study presents the methods of employee motivation and the rewarding system espouse by WILO company. This project is a result of a theoretical study of available literature as well as empirical research conducted at the company in order to analyse the effectiveness of the implemented methods and system. The analysis has also provided background for defining the role of managers and the required skills in the process of motivating employees. In addition, salary and benefits, good atmosphere, interesting job, professional development and job security have been tested and proved to be key motivating factors for both Polish and Hungary WILO employees.Nowadays in the more and more competitive global economy it seems to be of great significance that motivated employees might turn into the source of the companys competitive advantage, especially in such ar eas as quality, service and costs. Therefore, there seems to be a necessity to create a committed workforce, which is an investment for the future resulting in boosted efficiency, creativity, increased turnover, and subsequently a strong position of the company on the competitive market. antedateThe current competitive business world is focused on stiff development and sustainability of strong position on the market, therefore companies search for various ways of ensuring their success.The success of the business seems to be an outcome of the interaction between employees vs. customers, product and the organisation. Therefore, to create a business oriented company these three elements have to work out together to generate a profit for the organisation and financial benefits for employees. Hence, it is significant for an organisation to create a shade where employees would feel appreciated. This might be reached by providing rewards and incentives or benefits in overstep for their effective work. As a result of this, employees are expected to make efforts to accomplish objectives of an organisation.BackgroundEmployee motivation is a key factor in the success or failure of any organisation. In hard stinting times, which require companies to face the need to increase both budget cuts and productivity, it appears crucial to maintain workers loyalty and motivate them continuously. Should an organisation omit to motivate its staff, less productivity may occur, morale is not high as well as products and services are of a lower standard.I have selected the topic of motivating and rewarding of employees as my interests are focused on motivation programmes and I wish to gain an improved understanding of the area of building employee engagement. Moreover, my choice was dictated by my willingness to develop a better understanding of what precisely could motivate employees in different subsidiaries at WILO company. Furthermore, I wish to concentrate on factors which cou ld potentially encourage employees to be committed to work and develop a better atmosphere at a workplace.The objective of the studyThe main objective of the project is to investigate whether employees at WILO company are well motivated and if there is a need for improvement of the level of employee satisfaction in WILO subsidiaries in Poland and Hungary.Moreover, the goal of the research is to conduct a theoretical study of selected literature as well as empirical data collection by means of a survey, questionnaires and interviews at WILO company. I will also attempt to analyse the data to be aware of the current level of motivation as well as classify significant motivators for the Polish and Hungarian employees at WILO company. Finally I wish to draw a conclusion to improve the level of satisfaction and to build a better committed workforce.SummaryThe project has been divided into six chapters Introduction to the study, literature review, WILO company motivation and compensation system, methodology, results of the survey, and conclusion.The literature of the field presents all manner of findings concerning solutions to the problem of motivating and rewarding employees. For the purpose of formulating the main concepts of my thesis, I reviewed a wide variety of relevant literature, which serves to provide a theoretical background to my study.First part of the literature review covers the definition of motivation as well as various theories of motivation. Moreover, I explore Maslows hierarchy of needs theory, in comparison with Herzbergs theory, Alderfer as well as McClelland theory and McGregor theory (Schermerhorn, 2005). Furthermore, I focus on personalities and behaviour of employees and cover various issues regarding motivation and compensation systems, techniques and tools, and, in addition, I wish to explore the role of a manager.The following part focuses on a motivation and compensation system at WILO company. I will attempt to present the way of moti vating and rewarding employees at WILO company as well as the benefits and perks received by WILO employees. Furthermore, I innovate the training system which is applied at WILO to boost productivity.The thesis will consist of two parts, that is a theoretical and a practical one.In the theoretical part of my thesis, I intend to examine selected literature of the field in order to present possible ways of motivating and rewarding.In the practical part of my thesis, I will conduct a research whose purpose is to analyse empirical data extracted by means of questionnaires carried out in the Polish and Hungarian subsidiaries of WILO company. My study will explore the role of leadership in the process of motivation and methods of improving working conditions, by means of bonuses provided by the company.Finally, I draw a conclusion and discover crucial findings regarding motivation and compensation of the Polish and Hungarian subsidiaries of WILO company.Motivating and rewarding employees is one of the most significant and the most challenging activities that managers perform. Managers invariably flip on ways of motivating, thus we are in a position to find numerous views and speculations regarding this topic. It appears to be crucial to demonstrate briefly preponderating ideas regarding motivation and rewarding of employees, presented by different authors. Moreover, both academic researchers as well as practicing managers have attempted to understand and explain the problem of employee motivation for years (Robbins, Coulter, 2003 p. 425). Furthermore, effective managers who expect from their employees the maximum effort recognise that they are required to be familiar with the way employees are motivated as well as to modify their motivational practices to satisfy their needs.Chapter dickensLiterature ReviewDefinition of MotivationThere is hardly anything more frustrating than working hard, meeting or exceeding expectations and discovering that it doesnt matter t o your company. You get nothing special, or you get what everyone else does. People need to get distinguish rewards and recognition to be motivated. (Jack Welch, 2005107). There seems to be a wide variety of definitions of motivation. It is a term originally descended from the Latin word movere, which means to move (Rue, Byars, 2000). However, it has been extended to include the various factors by which human behaviour is triggered (Campbell Pritchard, 1976).What is interesting, the concept of the motivation was already well-known in ancient times as, for instance, Egyptian pyramids or the Great Wall in China without motivation and ratiocination would not exist.It should be borne in mind that the problem of motivation is not a current development. Research conducted by William James in the late 1800s pointed out the significance of motivation. He assumed that hourly employees might get their jobs by applying approximately 20 to 30 percent of their ability. Moreover, he found that highly motivated workers will perform at approximately 80 to 90 percent of their ability. Consequently, highly motivated employees are in a position to increase in performance as well as significantly decrease in problems such as turnover, strikes, absenteeism (Rue, Byars, 2000).As evince by the 34th American president Dwight D. EisenhowerMotivation is the art of acquire people to do what you want them to do because they want to do it.Motivation might be analysed by the following sequenceConsequently, in motivation needs create motives, which lead to the accomplishment of goals. Moreover, a motive is a stimulus which leads to an action that satisfies the need, which means that motives create actions. When employees achieve the goals, they satisfy the needs and simultaneously decrease the motive. Nonetheless, it might occur that other needs may arise. Understanding the motivation sequence provides managers with slight help in find what motivates employees (Rue, Byars, 2000).Nowad ays it is extremely important to have motivated employees in every organisation. While non-motivated employees will not provide good service, they are seeming to make mistakes and the reputation of the organisation may suffer as a result. Therefore, all businesses need enthusiastic and committed employees who work to support organisational goals. What is important, motivation occurs within people therefore work needs to meet their goals as well. Additionally, people have different motivation, consequently a reward that is taking to one employee might be unimportant to another (Boddy, 2002). Moreover, one of the preponderating factors which has an impact on efficiency and effectiveness of employees work as well as how they organise time at work is their motivation (Bruce and Pepitone, 2001). While, as claimed by Forsyth (2001), non-motivated employees tend to spend more time on breaks, surfboard the internet or private discussion.Nevertheless, motivation commences with employee e ngagement, and engagement starts with effective discourse skills. As mentioned by Jack Welch, former CEO of General galvanic (GE) and current Business Week columnist, no company, large or small, can succeed over the long run without energised employees who believe in the mission and understand how to achieve it. It is also worth mentioning that three main words in this quotation remain the secret to motivating employees energised, believe, understand (Gallo, 2008).Moreover, accord to Carmine Gallo (2008), successful companies have employees who believe in their mission. As exclamatory by Scott Cook (INTU), people want more than a paycheck. They want to feel as though they are part of something bigger than themselves.When discussing motivation, not only should we mention a different management style choose in Europe in comparison to Asia and America, but also the differences between companies in the same country or even differences between workplaces in the same company.To under stand better what precisely could motivate employees I will attempt to explore what motivation means in general. As claimed by Dessler (2004), a motive is an incentive that stimulates the person into the action or provides direction as well as hints to action. However, Robbins and Coulter (2003) presented a different view. They claim that motivation is the willingness which brings out high levels of strivings to achieve goals as well as to satisfy individual needs. What is more, studies conducted by Schermerhorn (2005), also provide a valuable input. He argues that motivation is in charge of the standard, direction, as well as tenacity of effort developed at the workplace. Moreover, in order to understand motivation, it is essential to understand human nature as it might be very simple or very complex at the same time. Hence, understanding the human nature is significant for effective motivation of employees at the workplace.Gary Dessler (2004) argues that motivation is the intensit y of an employee desire to engage in some actions. However, Buford, Bedeian Lindner (1995) stated that motivation is a tendency to behave in an intentional manner to fulfil particular and insatiable needs. Nevertheless, Kreitner (1995) presented a different view. According to his statement, motivation is a psychological process that provides behaviour aim and direction. Furthermore, as specify by John Schermerhorn (2005) and subsequently supported by Stephen Robbins and Mary Coulter (2003), motivation is the willingness which presents the level, direction, and perseverance of effort expanded at work to satisfy some individual needs.As claimed by Kondo (1995), motivating the employees is one of the numerous conditions and policies recognised to achieve the objectives of each company. Moreover, people involved in a task have to be sufficiently motivated to overcome all difficulties. Therefore, by saying, a company is its people it is meant that () people are our most important asset s (Schermerhorn, 2005). This statement demonstrates that a proper approach to people in an organisation is extremely important, that is, if managers treat employees appropriately, they will be repaid with effective work.What is important, even if we create an outstanding organisation, it will not be effective and even counter-productive if the employees lack motivation (Kondo, 1995).To conclude, highly motivated employees seem to be the most important assets for owners, chairmen, managers. Otherwise the productivity of the employees and the costs of the production will dramatically deteriorate.Personality and behaviour of employeesIt is commonly known that people differ in characters, abilities, values, behaviour, and needs. Moreover, different actions cause various reactions on people. One employee might stand whenever the boss wishes, while the other would not execute this order (Dessler, 2004).For a manager it is significant to be familiar with how to manage different personalit ies as ineffective management of a team with different personalities as well as working styles might lead to a failure of a particular project. As stated by Schermerhorn (2005) personality is the mixture or overall profile of characteristics that causes one person to stand out from all others. personalityAs claimed by Carl Jung, the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) is a democratic tool for measuring personality. This system is helpful for organisations to be familiar with the working styles of employees, balance teams and avoid conflicts. According to Myers-Briggs, assessment characteristics of personality are classified ad as Introvert/Extrovert Sensing/Intuition Thinking/ life and Judging/Perceiving. The MBTI questionnaires categorised people into 16 personality types along iv scales (Mutchler, 1998).Employees who possess the introvert personality tend to be introspective, they are often an analytical and scrupulous team member. However, extroverts are active as well as easy-go ing and comfortable with expressing their ideas openly.The sensing/intuition personalities tend to measure process of information. A sensing person seems to be visual and fact-oriented, whereas an intuitive person has a tendency to be more open and creative.The thinking/feeling type of personalities refers to the decisions making. Thinkers draw conclusions based on external standards and regulations, however, feelers are more focused on protecting feelings and values. As team members, feelers might consolidate people, while thinkers are successful in expressing logical reasons behind decisions.Finally, judging/perceiving concerns the approach people have to their life. People with judging personality tend to be well organised and they know what to do about their daily activities, while people with perceiving personalities are more flexible and spontaneous.It is note-worthy that every team is enriched by diversity, therefore, a range of personalities might create a stronger team. Mor eover, the diversity of the team might bring into a project different ideas, which is funk to increase performance and creativity of the team (Boddy, 2002).On the other hand, as claimed by Gary Dessler (2004) and illustrated in Figure 4. psychologists, nowadays emphasise the big five personality traits as they apply to such behaviour at work as extroversion, emotional stability, agreeableness, conscientiousness and openness to experience. Extroversion is personality where a person is outgoing, assertive and friendly. While emotional stability names someone who is relaxed, calm and secure. Moreover, this person is emotionally stable and confident. Agreeableness, in turn, is someone who is good-natured, conjunctive and trusting. Furthermore, a person who possesses an agreeable personality is also in good relationships with others, and a disagreeable person generates conflicts and discomfort for others. The following personality is called conscientiousness. An employee with this char acter trait is responsible, trustworthy and careful. On the other hand, a person who lacks conscientiousness is careless and often doing little. Finally, openness is the degree, to which someone is curious, open to new idea and creative. What is more, an open person is tolerant, open to change and receptive to new things. Moreover a person who lacks openness is resistant to change, narrow-minded and has limited sources of interests (Schermerhorn, 2005). some studies conclude that these five traits signify the essential structure of personality, and therefore influence how the person behaves (Beck, 2000).In addition, personality traits are not the only one factor which is responsible for persons behaviour at work. Therefore, individual differences in abilities also influence workers behaviour and performance (McCormick and Tiffin, 1974). To perform the work successfully every employee needs to possess appropriate abilities. However, even the most competent employee will not perform t he task successfully without motivation. Therefore, Performance = Ability x Motivation (Dessler, 2004).As claimed by Richard Field (2002) the main goal of attitudes is information of how to act with regard to other person. Moreover, attitudes are significant in organisations as they affect behaviour. Additionally, we may distinguish three parts of work attitudes that are the affective, such as what the employee feels about work, as well as the cognitive attitude- what the employee thinks about the work and the international- what actions is the employee planning to perform at work.Moreover, the job satisfaction is influenced by both the work environment and by the employees personal traits. It has been assessed that the individuals personality constitute between 10% and 30% of employees job satisfaction, however, 40% to 60% of the discrepancy in job satisfaction is motivated by situational factors. Furthermore, the interaction between personality and the situation constituted betwee n 10% and 20% (Field, 2002).Theories of MotivationThere are numerous motivation theories, however, the universal theory of motivation, which can explain all its aspects does not exist as each person is unique and has different needs and expectations.Managers have for ages attempted to understand why for one person work is enthusiastic and challenging, and means a possibility to improve the ability, while for other person work is something which you have to perform, as compulsion to survive and for living in a good condition. Theories of motivation focused on how managers might motivate their subordinates. However, they also have to motivate other people such as colleagues, consumers, or other managers.Psychologists created three main approaches when studied what motivates employees such as the need-based, process based and learning/reinforcement-based approaches.Need-based Approaches to MotivationNeed-based approaches to motivation concentrate on how needs trigger people to act the way they act as well as which needs are the most significant for each person.The most common theories of motivation are Maslows Hierarchy of Needs Theory, Herzbergs theory, McClelland theory and McGregor theory.Scientists generally commence most discussions concerning motivation by explaining individual needs therefore, as claimed by Schermerhorn (2005), a need is an unmet desire. An extremely significant and generally known theory of motivation is Maslows needs-hierarchy theory.Abraham Maslow a hierarchy of needsAbraham Maslow was an American clinical psychologist, who form a theory of human motivation to understand the needs of his patients. This model suggests that people have different types of needs. He also found it helpful to investigate data and observations of Douglas McGregor theory. He proved that the lower-order needs are leash until they are at least partly satisfied (Maslow, 1970). On the floor of this theory, an unsatisfied need can change a persons behaviour whil e a satisfied one can be a motivator of immediate action. As illustrated in Figure 5, Maslow argued that there is a hierarchy of five levels of needs. Starting from the lowest one, we may distinguish needs such as physiological, security, social, self-esteem and self-actualisation.Physiological needs are the needs essential for survival, such as food, water, shelter and clothing. These needs may be satisfied in an organisation by monetary compensation. Maslow proved that if these basic needs are unsatisfied, people will focus on activities that allow them to perplex the necessity of life. If they do not fulfil these basic needs, they will not strive to reach the higher needs (Boddy, 2002). However, if the physiological needs are gratified, new needs would appear which he called security needs.These needs provide such values as security, protection, stability, dependency (Maslow, 1970). They protect from fears, anxiety and chaos. In the event of this need being paramount for a perso n, a stable and regular job with secure working conditions may satisfy them. A company may meet these needs by medical or retirement benefits.The following need is belongingness which may be reached by assure a place in the group or family. This need triggers mettle and love and also requires closeness and cooperation with other people. This is the desire for acceptance and grace by friends and co-workers (Boddy, 2002).Maslow discovered that a wide variety of people possess self- esteem needs, which means self-respect and the respect of others. Self-respect is gratified when people have a sense of achievement, confidence, adequacy and competence. Moreover, people search for the respect of others, a desire for reputation in the eyes of other people such as prestige, status, attention and recognition. They wish to be noticed by others. In most cases they take challenging or difficult tasks just to demonstrate that they are good at their job. This behaviour gives them respect and st atus. To motivate employees through satisfying those needs, management may offer them recognition awards.Finally, Maslow named the paramount range of needs as self-actualisation, which provides the desire for self-fulfilment as well as potential. Maslows pointed out that this need only begins to dominate when the all lower-level needs have been relatively satisfied. People who wish to gratify self-actualisation needs will search for personal relevance in their work. They are more willing to value new responsibilities to realise their potential and also develop new talents, skills or horizons (Boddy, 2002). Unfortunately, on this level it is almost impossible to satisfy a person completely as this refers to the feeling of self-fulfilment and the realisation of ones potential, which become higher and higher during persons development. This need may be gratified by paying attention to allowing a person to participate in seminars or temporary assignments to special projects.Maslows hier archy of needs model is referred to as a content theory, it focuses on what will motivate a person without exactly explaining why an individual is motivated. It is not a complete model of human motivation, but it does demonstrate how managers can approach the basic needs of their employees (Alderfer, 1969). Moreover, it suggests that there are significant differences among people in terms of the needs they may wish to satisfy. A manager should always have in mind that motivators may change over time due to environmental influences and the individuals life cycle. It is also note-worthy that, until basic needs are satisfied, people will not concentrate on high-level needs. However, there is little evidence that people must meet their needs in the same sequence of the hierarchy, for instance not all of them must gratify social needs such as affiliation and esteem before moving on to satisfy self-actualisation needs (Dalrymple, 1992). Furthermore, there are people for whom self-esteem i s often more significant then love, however, for others creativeness is the priority. In this case, they are not searching for self-actualisation once they satisfied their basic needs. Others had such permanently low aspirations that they experienced life at a very basic level (Boddy, 2002).In other words, it is of great significance that human beings always have a variety of needs (Kondo, 1995).Clayton Alderfer- Existence Relatedness Growth (ERG) TheoryThe following theory provided by Clayton Alderfer (1969) was based on Maslows research and focuses on three needs existence, relatedness and growth. His work was build on Maslows ideas, however, he presented an alternative to them. He created and researched his theory in questionnaires as well as interview-based studies conducted in five organisations such as bank, a manufacturing firm, two colleges and a school.His existence needs are similar to Maslows physiological needs and to security needs such as concern for losing the job an d salary. They include physiological desires such as hunger and thirst which symbolise deficiencies in existence needs. Nevertheless, pay and benefits symbolise ways of satisfying visible requirements (Dessler, 2004).Relatedness needs focus on relationships with important people such as family, friends, but also bosses, subordinates, team members or customers. Additionally, they require interpersonal interaction to gratify the needs such as prestige and esteem from others. People gratify these needs by sharing thoughts and feelings. Moreover, acceptance, understanding, and confirmation are significant for satisfying relatedness needs (Boddy, 2002).Growth needs are approximately capable to Maslows needs for self-esteem and self-actualisation. People satisfy these needs if they deal with problems by using their skills or developing new talents (Alderfer, 1969).Maslows and Alderfer models can be severalise in two major ways. Maslows created five sets of needs, while Alderfer formula ted three. Moreover, Maslow claimed that each of the needs should be satisfied before moving to the next level of needs. However, Alderfer argued that existence, relatedness and growth needs are active simultaneously (Dessler, 2004).David McClelland- Need for Affiliation, creator and AchievementDavid McClelland (1961) examined the way people think in wide variety of situations. Moreover, he claimed that managers should satisfy employees higher-level needs. His research discovered three categories of human needs. They metamorphose in degree in all employees and managers, and characterise style and behaviour.The need for affiliation means to develop and maintain interpersonal relationships. People who have the need for affiliation are motivated to maintain strong relationships with family and friends. In social meetings they attempt to create friendly atmosphere by being agreeable or providing emotional support (Litwin Stringer, 1968).The need for power means to be in a position to influence and control others. People with the need for power wish to influence others directly by providing opinions, making suggestions. They would find themselves as teachers or public speakers as well as leaders. However, the need for power depends on persons other needs. A person with a strong need for power but a low need for good relationships might turn into a dictator. Simultaneously, a person with strong needs for friendship might turn out to be a social worker or a cleric. McClelland assumed that a good manager is motivated by a regimented and regulated concern for influencing others (McClelland, 1995). It means that a good manager should have the need for power however it always has to be under control.The need for achievement means taking personal responsibility and demonstrating successful results. People who have a strong need for achievement have a predisposition to reach a success, and they are searching for advancement at work. They possess the strong need to achie ve satisfaction from challenging goal or task. These people prefer tasks in which success is reasonably achievable, consequently avoiding tasks which are too easy or too difficult (McClelland, 1961).To sum up, it is note-worthy that what is valuable to one person might mean nothing to another. One manager may aspire for promotion, while other is searching for stability and is more satisfied with a slower track. For some managers independence and autonomy are of great significance as they wish to work on their own, while others are more concerned with long-run career job security and also they wish to have stable future (Dessler, 2004).Frederick Herzberg Hygiene-Motivator (two-factor) TheoryThe following theory provided by Frederick Herzberg (1959) is Hygiene Motivation Theory. He split Maslows theory into lower-level (physiological, security, social) and higher-level (ego, self-actualisation) needs. According to the motivation theory proposed by Herzberg , motivation is managed by two different types of factors such as satisfiers and dissatisfiers. It seems that employees experience dissatisfaction with things such as low pay or noisy working environment and it is significant to eliminate these dissatisfiers. In turn, to motivate employees it is crucial to enrich daily work in satisfiers. Moreover, to motivate employees it is also significant to involve them in preparing working standards and setting work goals, precisely appraising their results, as well as rewarding them appropriately (Kondo, 1995).Herzberg conducted a research with 200 engineers and he focused on their experience of work. The respondents were asked not only to reminisce about a time when they had good time at work but they were also asked to bring back to memory a time when they felt bad at work and provide the background (Boddy, 2002).Research analysis demonstrated that when employees thought about good times they mentioned factors such as recognition, achievements, responsibility, advanc ement, and personal growth, work itself, etc. However, when they were describing the bad time, they mentioned the following factors supervision, company policy and administration, salary, working conditions, interpersonal relations, etc. Herzberg concluded that factors which generate dissatisfaction are hygiene factors and these satisfiers he called motivators, as they seemed to influence individual performance and effort (Herzberg, 1959).According to Herzebrg, it seems to be significant to motivate employees by creating challenges and opportunities for achievement. Consequently, dissatisfied personnel work with lower motivation and their